Glass 
Book 



I 




THE 



NEW AMERICAN GARDENER; 

CONTAINING 



ISractical mivtttimu 



ON THE CULTURE OF 



FRUITS AND VEGETABL,ESj 



. INCLUDING 



LANDSCAPE AND ORNAMENTAL GARDENING GRAPE-VINES 
SILK, STRAWBERRIES, &c. &c. 

d 

BY THOMA - / FESSENDEN, 

EDITOR OF THi: N^W ENGLAND FARM£R. 



God Almighty first planted a Garden f and indeed it is the purest of humau 
pleasures : it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man ; without which 
buildings and palaces are but gross handy-works Bacon's Essays. 



BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED BY RUSSELL, ODIORNE & CO. 

AND 

CARTER, HENDEE & CO. 

Cincinnati: 
H. L. & H. S. BARNUM. 
Sold also by G. C. Barrett, 50^ North Market Street, Boston; G. 
Thorburn & Sons, 67 Liberty Street, New York; E. C. Meilke, 
181 Market Street, Philadelphia; S. C. Parkhurst, 
23 Lower Market Street, Cincinnati; 
and the l^^^^°c:]lz"Z genei Jly. 



1833 



DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, to witt 

District Clerk^s Office. 

Be it remembered. That on the eighteenth day ot July, A. D, 1828, in the fifty 
third year of the Independence of the United States of America, J. B. Russell, of the 
j-did (lisirict, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof ha 
claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit : 

*' Tlie New American Gardener ; containing practical Directions on the Culture of 
•^ruits and Vegetables ; including Landscape and Ornamental Gardening, Grape- 
' ine^. Silk, Strawberries, &c. &c. By Thomas G. Fessenden, Editor of the New 
jSiigland Farmer. 

" God Almighty first planted a Garden ; and indeed it is the purest of human 
pleasures : it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man ; without which 
wuildingg and palaces are but gross handy-works. — Bacon's Essays." 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act 
for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books 
'.o the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned 
4nd also to an act, entitled, An Act supplementary to an act, entitled, An Act 
fur the encouragemient of learning, by securing the ^ies of maps, charts, and books, 
•c the authors and proprietors of such, copies dur^ the times therein mentioned ; 
&Dd extending the benefits thereof to the arts of 'gning, engraving, and etching 
kiitorical and other prints." i < 

\ JNO. W. DAVIS, 

Clerk of the District of Massachusetts 

2. 3C| 



Stereotyped at the 
Boston Type ana Stereotype Foundry, 



TO THE 



HON. JOHPT LOWELL, LL. D. 

PRESIDENT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THK 
PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE, &c. &c. 

Sir, 

The compiler of the New American Gardener 
is happy to inscribe it to a gentleman, whose enlight- 
ened zeal, and disinterested efforts to promote the art 
to which it is devoted, have rendered such dedication 
so very appropriate. Please to accept of it, not only 
as a grateful acknowledgment of favours received, but 
a slight, though sincere, indication of the writer's high 
opinion of the value of your indefatigable exertions to 
encourage and enlighten the pursuits of the Husband- 
man and the Horticulturist ; vocations, which, as they 
are first in the order of civilization, should, in every 
civilized country, be considered as of the first im- 
portance to the best interests of its inhabitants. 
With the highest esteem, 
your much obliged, 

and most obedient servant, 

THOMAS G. FESSENDEN. 



With regard to the following pages, the Compiler oegs 
leave to observe, that utility has been his sole object. He 
has no pride of authorship to sustain, nor new theories to 
establish. The work is nothing more than a humble %t' 
tempt to render some service to cultivators, by collecting 
and condensing, from various sources, such directions, 
notices, and observations, relating as well to field as to 
garden culture, as seemed of most importance in prac- 
tice. 

We would here express our gratitude to gentlemen who 
have favoured us w ith articles for this work, which must 
not only greatly enhance its value, but, it is hoped, will 
atone, in some measure, for the faults and imperfections of 
those parts, for which the Compiler alone is responsible. 
The papers to which we allude have the following heads 
or titles, viz. " Flowers, Ornamental," 109 ; " Fruits,'' 
128; "Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens," 184 ; 
"Silk," 268; "Strawberry," 285; and "Vine," 294. 
The two last mentioned articles were from the pen of the 
s«ime gentleman ; and that on the Vine, having been origin- 
ally published in the Massachusetts Agricultural Repositorxfy 
has been republished and recommended in other scientific 
journals, as forming a complete manual for the culture of 
the grape. 



NEW AMERICAN GARDENER. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The importance and utility of Horticulture, or the 
drt of cultivating those products of the soil which are used 
in domestic economy, require no elaborate exposition. The 
greatest blessings which a kind Providence can bestow on 
man, in his sublunary state of existence, are, health of body 
and peace of mind ; and the pursuits of gardening eminent- 
ly conduce to these. Gardening was the primitive employ- 
ment of the first man; and the first of men^ among his 
descendants, have ever been attached to that occupation. 
Indeed, we can hardly form aif idea of human felicity, in 
which a garden is not one of its most prominent character- 
istics. 

Gardening is not only an innocent and healthy, but a 
profitable occupation. It is not alone by the money which 
is made^ but also by the money which is savedj that the 
profits of a pursuit should be estimated. Where a good 
garden constitutes part of a rural establishment, and the 
culinary uses of its productions are well understood, the 
field or the market furnishes a proportionabiy small part of 
the provisions necessary for family consumption. " I con- 
sider," said Dr. Deane, " the kitchen garden of very con- 
siderable importance, as pot-herbs, salads, and roots of 
various kinds, are useful in house-keeping. Having a 
plenty of them at hand, a family will not be so likely to 
run into the error, w^hich is too common in this country, 
of eating flesh in too great a proportion for health. Farm- 
ers, as well as others, should have kitchen gardens ; and 
they need not grudge the labour of tending them, which 
may be done at odd intervals of time, which would other- 
wise chance to be consumed in needless loitering." 

Cowley says of gardening, " It is one of the best-natured 
delights of all others, for a man to look about him, and see 
nothing but the effects and improvements of his own art 
1 ^ 



6 



INTRODUCTION. 



and diligence ; to be always gathering some fruits of it, 
and at the same time to behold others ripening, and others 
budding ; to see his soil covered with the beauteous crea- 
tures of his own industry ; and to see, like God, that all 
his w^orks are good." 

We shall here state, concisely, some of the principal pre- 
requisites for successful horticulture, directing our observa; 
tions, chiefly, to what relates to the kitchen garden. Gar- 
dens are usually classed under the following heads : — the 
kitchen garden ; the fruit garden ; and the flower garden. 
The flower garden, being designed principally for ornament, 
should be placed in the most conspicuous part, that is, in 
front, or next to the back part of the house; the kitchen 
garden and fruit garden may follow in succession. With 
respect to the natural situation of a garden, Nicol and For- 
t^yth agree in preferring a gentle declivity towards the south, 
a little inclining to the east, to receive the benefit of the 
morning sun. "A kitchen garden," observed Dr. Deane, 
" should not be situated at any great distance from the 
house, lest, being too much out of sight, it should be out of 
mind, and the necessary culture of it too much neglected." 
It should be placed adjoining to a stable, whence the dung 
may be easily conveyed into the enclosure. It should be 
sheltered, as much as can be, from the north and east, to 
prevent the blighting winds from affecting the trees. The 
best soil for a garden is a sandy loam, two or three feet 
deep, according to Forsyth ; but if deeper, the better. The 
earth should not be of a binding nature in summer, nor re- 
tentive of rain in winter, but of such a texture that it can 
be worked at any season, when not frozen, without difli-i- 
culty." 

Dr. Deane observed, that " a garden should have a close 
fence, that the winds may not drive seeds of weeds into it. 
The fence should be at least seven feet high, and picketed 
to prevent the entrance of thieves. The height and close- 
ness of the fence will increase the vegetation by increasing 
the warmth of the air in the garden, excepting, perhaps, the 
parts which are shaded by the fences. The rage of high 
winds will be so opposed as to prevent the tearing and 
distorting of tender plants, and fowls may be more easily 
kept out." Loudon remarks, that " the height of walls for 
training fruit trees, generally approved, is from ten to 
twelve feet; but it is more commonly determined by the 



INTRODUCTION. 



7 



^size and form of the garden, and the inclination of its sur- 
face." " Many low walls, or stout ranges of paling," Aber- 
crombie observes, " will produce a greater total effect, in 
accelerating fruit, than the same expenditure in high walls." 
" Fruit walls, five or six feet high," Hitt remarks, " will 
do very well for peaches, cherries, vines, and figs ; but he 
would not advise the planting of apricots, plums, or pears, 
on such walls, they requiring more room, and to stand 
longer before they bear. Garden walls have been coloured 
white or black, and the latter colour is justly preferred as 
absorbing and refracting more heat than any other, and 
thereby accelerating the maturity, and improving the quali- 
ty of fruits." — H, Dawes, in Hort, Trans, vol. iii. p. 380. 

To assist in determining the extent of a garden, Marshall 
observes, that an acre^ wdth wall trees, hot beds, &c. will 
furnish employment for one man, who, at some busy times, 
will need assistance. Loudon says, " To give some rules 
for the quantity of ground to be laid out, a family of four 
persons, (exclusive of servants,) should have a rood of 
good-working, open ground, and so in proportion." Mr. 
Armstrong observes, that " The size and shape of the 
kitchen garden are not indifferent, but admit of no positive 
rules for their regulation, because depending on circum- 
stances rarely alike in two cases — the nature of the ground, 
and the wants and ability of the occupier. On these heads, 
therefore, we only say, that a parallelogram and a square are 
the forms most approved, because most susceptible of a 
cheap, easy, and regular arrangement into beds ; and that 
tico acres^ devoted to the culture of table vegetables, will 
furnish an abundant supply, for even a large family." 

" The ground is next to be divided into quarters, the 
size of which ought to be proportioned to the extent of the 
garden; because, if these divisions be too small, the soil 
will be v/asted in walks ; and as the quarters are generally 
enclosed by espaliers of fruit-trees, the vegetables which 
may be planted there will not thrive, for want of sufficient 
exposure. The walks should, therefore, be proportioned 
to the size of the ground ; and in a small garden, they ought 
not to exceed eight feet; or, if it be a large one, from twelve 
to fourteen feet in breadth. It vm\ also be advisable to 
place a border, three or four feet wide, between such wall 
and the espalier, in which maybe sown small salads, or any 
similar vegetables, that do not take deep root, or continue 



8 



INTRODUCTION 



long in the ground. These quarters, however, ought not 
to be planted or sown, for raising the same crops, two suc- 
cessive years ; and the warmest soil, or that which is next 
to the stable, where it is best sheltered from the cold winds, 
will be the most proper for hot-beds, to promote the growth 
of early cucumbers, melons, &c." — Dom, Eiicyc. 

A copious supply of water is very essential to a good 
kitchen garden. Loudon remarks, that " Many kitcben 
crops are lost, or produced of very inferior quality, for want 
of watering. Lettuces and cabbages are often hard and 
stringy ; turnips and radishes do not swell ; onions decay ; 
cauliflowers die off ; and, in general, in dry seasons, all the 
cruciferecB become stinted or covered with insects, even in 
rich, deep soils. Copious waterings in the evenings, dur- 
ing the dry seasons, would produce that fulness and succu- 
lency which we find in the vegetables produced in the 
Low Countries, and in the Marsh Gardens at Paris, and in 
England at the beginning and latter end of the season. 
The vegetables brought to the London market, from the 
Neat's Houses and other adjoining gardens, where the im- 
portant article of watering is much more attended to than 
in private country gardens, may be adduced as affording 
proofs of the advantage of the practice. 

" The contrivance for watering or washing the foliage of 
the wall trees in Dalmeny garden, laid out by that excellent 
horticultural architect, John Hay, deserves particular notice. 
Water is supplied to the garden from a reservoir, situated 
on an eminence, a considerable height above the garden 
walls. Around the whole garden, four inches below the 
surface of the ground, a groove, between two and three 
inches deep, has been formed in the walls, to receive a 
three quarter inch pipe for conducting the water. About 
fifty feet distant from each other, are apertures through the 
wall, two feet and a half high, and ten inches wide, in 
which a cock is placed, so that, on turning the handle to 
either side of the wall, the water issues from that side. The 
nozles of the cocks have screws on each side, to which is 
attached, at pleasure, a leathern pipe, with a brass cock 
and director; roses, pierced with holes of different sizes, 
being fitted to the latter. By this contrivance, all the trees, 
both inside and outside the wall, can be most effectually 
watered and washed in a very short space of time, and 
with very little trouble. One man may go over the i^ hole 



INTRODUCTION. 



9 



in two hours. At the same time, the borders, and even a 
considerable part of the compartments, can be watered with 
the greatest ease when required. The convenience and 
utility of this contrivance must at once be perceived by eve- 
ry practical horticulturist. The same plan of introducing 
water is adopted in a garden, which J. Hay planned and 
executed for Lord V. Duncan, at Lundie House, near Dun- 
dee ; and, after the experience of several years, it has been 
greatly approved of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to 
the garden from a considerable height, and is thrown from 
the point of the director with great force, and to a good dis- 
tance." — Endin, Encyc, art. Horticulture. 

" Vegetables that are newly transplanted, as they have 
their roots more or less diminished, or otherwise injured, 
often need watering, until they have taken new root. But 
this should be done with caution. If a dry season follow 
the transplanting, let them be watered, if they appear to 
droop, only at evenings, and in cloudy weather, and with 
water which has been exposed, one day at least, to the 
shining of the sun ; not with water directly from a well, or 
a cold spring, as it will give a chill to the plants. Only a 
small quantity should be applied at once, that it may have 
an effect similar to that of a refreshing rain ; for water, ap 
plied too plentifully, sometimes washes away the finest of 
the mould from the roots, or makes little cavities about 
them, which admit too much air. 

" In a dry season, whole gardens sometimes need water- 
ing; and, in doing it, the above precautions should bs 
regarded. They are happy, who have a piece of standing 
water in their garden, or a rivulet near at hand, from 
whence the garden may be watered without much la- 
bour." — -Deane. 

In laying out the compartments of a garden, Forsyth ob- 
serves, " You must be guided, in a great measure, by the 
form and size of the garden ; but do not lay them out too 
small, as, in that case, a great part of the ground will be 
taken up with walks and borders. The best figure is a 
square, or oblong, when the garden is of that form ; but if 
not, they may be laid out in any other figure that is thought 
to be most convenient." Some of the compartments, in 
some of our best gardens, Neill observes, are laid out in 
beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many alleys, 
no doubt, occupy a deal of room ; but advantages of conve- 



10 



INTRODUCTION. 



niency and neatness in enabling the workmen to clean and 
gather the crop, without trampling the ground, seem to 
compensate the sacrifice of space. For currant, gooseberry, 
and raspberry bushes, the compartments are, of course, re- 
served undivided ; and narrow beds are unnecessary in the 
case of large perennial plants, such as artichokes or rhu- 
barb. 

Abercrombie recommends the borders next the walls to 
be made of prepared soil, " from eight to twelve feet wide, 
and the same description of soil extended under the walks, 
in order to allow a liberal width for the roots to spread 
without impediment. Next to the borders, leave a space 
for a walk entirely round the garden, from four to six feet 
wide. Some persons, also, choose to have a border on the 
inward side of the walk, for the cultivation of espaliers, and 
esculents of a dwarf growth; others divide the central 
parts at once into main compartments or divisions. The 
walks or alleys must be regulated by convenience of access. 
Where the ground is extensive, the centre should be trav- 
ersed by a walk, with parallel borders, from which cross- 
walks may branch, if necessary." The borders under the 
walls, Forsyth observes, " should, in the inside, be from 
ten to twenty feet wide, according to the size of the garden, 
to give full liberty for the roots of the trees to spread. 
There should be a foot-path, about two feet and a half from 
the wall, for the greater convenience of nailing the trees, 
gathering the fruit, &c. This walk should be from two to 
two feet and a half wide, (to admit a barrow or barrow en- 
gine for watering the trees,) and covered with sand, or, 
which is better, r oal-ashes, about two or three inches thick, 
but without any gravel or rubbish below." " The borders 
for wall trees," according to Nicol, " should not be less 
than twelve feet in breadth ; but fifteen or eighteen feet is 
not too much : that is to say, the soil should be prepared 
for these breadths, if it be not naturally good, and perfectly 
answerable for the different kinds of trees to be planted." 
— See further Encyc. of Gard, p. 474. 

The above directions are mostly copied and abridged from 
European writers on horticulture, of established reputation. 
They may, perhaps, prove of use to American gardeners, 
though they may not apply, in their full extent, to the soil, ob- 
jects of culture, &c. of any individual cultivator. Useful hints 
may be gathered from precepts, which, taken in the aggre- 



INTRODUCTION. 



gate, it would be the height of absurdity to be guided by: 
It was well remarked, in a little work, lately published, 
entitled Economy of the Kitchen Garden, &c. by William 
Wilson, of New York, that " The word garden, considered 
in its most extensive point of view, embraces such a multi- 
plicity of subjects, which properly come within its range, that 
people are very apt to enter upon the formation and cultiva- 
tion of one under a very disadvantageous and erroneous im- 
pression of the impracticability of having one of any value 
upon a small scale ; or at any thing short of a great expense 
and labour. Whereas, the truth of the matter is, that the 
most valuable part of all gardening, the raising of esculent 
vegetables, is an employment the most easily accomplished 
by those who are possessed of the hands of industry." A 
man may raise garden vegetables, fruits, &c. and receive 
benefit, as regards their culture, from books on horticulture, 
without possessing any of the requisites of what is techni- 
cally called a garden. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, 

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. 



APPLE. — Presermtion of apples. — Apples keep best in 
a low temperature, and may be well preserved in an ice- 
house. An English journal recommends the use of dry- 
pit sand for preserving pears and apples. Glazed earthen 
jars are to be provided, and the sand to be thoroughly dried. 
A layer of sand an inch thick is then placed in the bottom 
of the jar ; above this a layer of fruit, to be covered with 
a layer of sand an inch thick ; then lay a second stratum of 
fruit, covering again with an inch of sand. An inch and a 
half of sand may be placed over the uppermost row of fruit. 
The jar is now to be closed, and placed in a dry situation, 
as cool as possible, but entirely free from frost. Somt 
assert that apples may be kept in casks through the winter, 
in a chamber or garret, by being merely covered with linen 
cloths. Apples, which are intended for winter's use, should 
be suffered to hang on the tree as long as they are safe from 
frost. 

Cobbett says, " To preserve apples in their v/hole state, 
observe this, that/ra5? does not much injure them, provided 
they be kept in total darkness during the frost, and until 
they be used ; and provided they be perfectly dry when put 
away. If put together in large parcels, and kept from the 
frost, they heat^ and then they rot ; and those of them that 
happen not to rot, lose their flavour, become vapid, and are, 
indeed, good for little. This is the case with the Newtown 
pippins that are sent to England, which are half lost by rot, 
while the remainder are poor, tasteless stuff, very little bet- 
ter than the English, the far greater part of which are either 
sour or mawkish. The apples thus sent have every pos- 
sible disadvantage. They are gathered carelessly, tossed 
into baskets, and tumbled into barrels at once, and without 
any packing stuff between th^m : the barrels are flung into 
2 



14 



APrLE. 



and out of wagons ; they are rolled along upon the pave- 
ments ; they are put into the hold, or between the decks ; 
and is it any wonder, that a barrel of pomace^ instead of 
apples^ arrives at Liverpool or London ! If, instead of this 
careless work, the apples were gathered, (a week before ripe;) 
not bruised at all in the gathering ; laid in the sun on 
boards or cloths three days to let the watery particles evap- 
orate a little ; put into barrels with fine cut straw-chaff, in 
such a way as that no apple touched another ; carefully 
carried to the ship, and put on board, and as carefully landed ; 
if this were the mode, one barrel, though it would contain 
only half the quantity, would sell for as much as, upon an 
average, taking in loss by total destruction, twenty barrels 
sell for now. On the deck is the best part of the ship for 
apples ; but, if managed as I have directed, between decks 
would do very well. In the keeping of apples for market 
or for house use, the same precautions ought to be observed 
as in gathering and laying out to dry ; and, perhaps, to pack 
in the same way, also, is the best mode that can be dis- 
covered. 

" Dried apples is an article of great and general use. 
Every body knows that the apples are peeled, cut into 
about eight pieces, the core taken out, and the pieces put 
m the sun till they become dry and tough. They are then 
put by in bags or boxes in a dry place. But the flesh of 
the apple does not change its nature in the drying ; and, 
therefore, the finest, and not the coarsest apples should have 
all this trouble bestowed upon them." 

The following valuable observations, contained in a letter 
from Noah Webster, Esq. have been published in the Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural Repository : — 

" It is the practice with some persons to pick apples in 
October, and first spread them on the floor of an upper 
room. This practice is said to render apples more durable, 
by drying them. But I can afiirm this to be a mistake. 
Apples, after remaining on the trees as long as safety from 
the frost will admit, should be taken directly from the trees 
to close casks, and kept dry and cool as possible. If suf- 
fered to lie on a floor for weeks, they wither and lose their 
flavour, without acquiring any additional durability. The 
best mode of preserving apples for spring use, I have found 
to be, the putting them in dry sand as soon as picked. For 



APPLE. 



15 



this purpose, I dry sand in the heat of summer, and late in 
October put down the apples in layers, with a covering of 
sand upon each layer. The singular advantages of this 
mode of treatment are these: — 1st. The sand keeps the 
apples from the air, which is essential to their preservation. 
2d. The sand checks the evaporation or perspiration of the 
apples, thus preserving in them their full flavour ; at the 
same time, any moisture yielded by the apples (and some 
there will be) is absorbed by the sand : so that the apples 
are kept dry, and all mustiness is prevented. My pippins 
in May and June are as fresh as when first picked ; even 
the ends of the stems look as if just separated from the 
twig." 

Apples, it is said, may well be preserved by packing in 
any kind of grain ; also in paper cuttings of the book- 
binder ; or in shallow pits, between layers of turf, the grassy 
side inwards, with a sufficient covering of straw and earth 
to protect them from frost ; likewise in dry flax-seed chafl", 
or pulverized plaster of Paris. 

A letter from Ebenezer Preble, Esq. published in the 
Massachusetts Agricultural Repository^ Vol. iv. No. i. p. 24, 
contains the following useful directions on this subject : — 

The general method of gathering apples for cider, is, 
shaking the tree, and thrashing the branches with poles. 
The former will answer when the fruit is at maturity; they 
will then drop without injury to the buds. Poles should 
never be used but with a hook at the end, covered with 
cloth or matts to prevent wounding the bark ; they then 
serve to shake the small limbs. Particular attention is re- 
quired in gathering winter fruit. They should be taken in 
the hand, the fingers placed at the foot stalk, and, by bend- 
ing it upwards, the fruit is gathered with ease, and without 
injury ; they should be moved from the gathering baskets 
with great care," &c. The same writer says, " The inju- 
dicious method practised in gathering fruit, is more destruc- 
tive in its consequences, than is generally understood ; the 
blossom buds of the succeeding year are placed at the side 
of the foot stalk of the fruit, and if the spurs are broken, no 
fruit on that part will be produced." — See further j Fruit. 

Use. — For pies, tarts, sauces, and the dessert, the use of 
the apple is too well known to require description. In 
France, bread is made consisting of one third of boiled apple 



16 



APPLE. 



pulp, baked with Uvo thirds flour, properly fermented ^: 
yeast for twelve hours. This bread is said to be very fine^ 
full of eyes, and extremely palatable and light. Apples, 
by furnishing cider, a grateful and salubrious liquor, have a 
tendency to diminish the consumption of ardent spirits. 
Besides, apples are thought to alter and ameliorate the taste 
and the tone of the human system, in such a manner as to 
destroy that artificial appetite, which is gratified by the 
deleterious preparations of alcohol. " The palate," says 
Mr. Knight, a celebrated English horticulturist, which 
relishes fruit, is seldom pleased with strong fermented 
liquors ; and as feeble causes, continually acting, ultimately 
produce extensive effects, the supplying the public with 
fruit at a cheap rate, would have a tendency to operate fa- 
vourably, both on the physical and moral health of the 
people." In medicine, verjuice, or the juice of crab-apples, 
is used for sprains, and as an astringent and repellent. The 
good table apple, when ripe, is laxative ; the juice is useful 
in dysenteries ; boiled or roasted apples fortify a weak 
stomach. " Scopoli," says Loudon, "recovered from a 
weakness of the stomach and indigestion from using them ; 
«ind they are equally efficacious, in putrid and malignant fe- 
vers, with the juice of lemons or currants." " In diseases 
of the breast," says Dr. Willich, (Dom. Ency.) "such as 
catarrhs, coughs, consumptions, &c. they are of consider- 
able service. For these beneficial purposes, hov/ever, they 
ought not to be eaten rav>^, but either roasted, stewed, or 
boiled. They may also be usefully employed in decoctions, 
Vvhich, if drank plentifully, tend to abate febrile heat, as 
well as to relieve painful strictures in pectoral complaints." 

Apples have also been recommended as food for horses 
and farm stock, for which purpose sweet apples are of the 
greatest value. — See N. E. Farmer^ vol. v. p. 82. Sweet 
apples are said, likewise, to afford a saccharine matter, 
which is a good substitute for molasses. For this purpose 
the apples are ground and pressed in a cider mill, and the 
juice boiled immediately, the scum being taken off till it is 
reduced to a proper consistence. 

The following process for making apple jelly has been 
recommended : — Pare and quarter the apples, and remove 
the core completely. Then put them into a pot, and place 
it in a heated oven, or over a slow fire. When well stewed, 



APPLE-TREE. 



17 



squeeze out the juice through a cloth, to which add a little 
of the white of an egg. Boil it to a proper consistence, 
skimming just before it begins to boil. 

APPLE-TREE.— Pynf5 malus^—lw propagating the apple- 
tree, the common method in New England has been t( sow 
the pomace from late made cider, without regard to the 
quality of the apples producing the pomace. But we doubt 
very much w^iether this is the best mode of raising this val- 
uable fruit-tree. The seeds for a nursery should, we think, 
be selected from the best varieties of apples which can be 
procured ; and this for the simple reason that " like produces 
its likeness." It is as expedient to propagate from the best 
individuals of the vegetable as of the animal creation. In 
proof of this theory, we would cite the following from a 
communication to Dr. Mease of Philadelphia, addressed to 
him by Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New^ Jersey, an accurate 
observer and scientific cultivator : — 

" Experience for more than fifty years has convinced me 
that, although seedlings from apples will scarcely ever pro- 
duce fruit, in New Jersey, exactly similar to the original, 
yet many of them will produce excellent fruit ; some will be 
even superior to the apples from which the seeds were taken 
This fact has led me to plant seeds from the largest and best 
kinds of fruit, and from trees of a strong and rapid growth, 
and to let all young trees bear fruit before grafting, which 
produced an uncommonly strong shoot, or large, rich looking 
leaf. I have seldom known them fail of bearing fruit hav- 
ing some good quality ; at all events, they make stocks to 
put any good kind on, which may afterwards present itself" 

Loudon observes, that " the apple, like most other hardy 
trees, may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, suckers, layers, 
or engrafting; by seeds, for obtaining new varieties, and by 
the other modes for continuing such as are in esteem. The 
seeds should be taken from fruits having the properties it is 
desired to perpetuate or improve in the greatest degree. In 
collecting seeds to sow, it must be remembered that the 
habits as w^ell as the diseases of plants are often hereditary, 
and attention should be paid to the state of the tree from 
which the seeds are taken ; it should be large, and of free 
growth, and rather in a growing state than one of maturity 
or decay." — See Cuttings, Engrafting, Layers, Nurse- 
ry, Orchard, Scions, in their alphabetical order. 



18 



APRICOT. ARTICHOKE. 



Manure for apple-trees, — Rotten leaves of trees are recom- 
mended by Forsyth as the best manure for fruit-trees, which, 
he says, is " much better than dung, which I by no means 
approve of for trees, unless it be perfectly rotten, and mixed 
up with mould. It is better, however, not to make use of 
such leaves as manure for fruit-trees unless it be perfectly 
rotten, and reduced to a fine vegetable mould." — ForsyWs 
Treatise on Fruit-Trees^ pp. 62, 63, American edition. 

Use, — Besides the uses to which the fruit of this valuable 
tree is applicable, the bark will produce a yellow colour, 
and the wood is used in turning and various purposes, where 
hardness, compactness, and variegation of colour are objects. 

APRICOT. — Primus Armeniaca. — The apricot-tree may 
be procured from the stone, like the peach ; and approved 
sorts are perpetuated by budding, either on their ov/n stocks 
or on plum stocks. They require the same sort of treat- 
ment as the peach and nectarine tree. The soil, which 
suits them best, is a rich black mould, according to some 
writers, but others recommend a light loam. " In our cli- 
mate," says Dr. Thacher, this tree should be screened 
from easterly and northerly winds ; otherwise, it is said, 
they will not bear fruit, though they may grow very large. 
They do not attain to a bearing state so soon as the peach 
by one year. Some kinds ripen their fruit much earlier 
than others. The following are those best adapted to our 
climate : 

The black apricot, The large early apricot, 

The Brussels apricot, The peach apricot, 

The Breda apricot. The Moor's Park apricot. 

The early apricot, The Turkey apricot. 

A'RTlCJiOK'K.-'- Cynar a scolipnus, — There are, according 
to Loudon, three varieties cultivated — conical, French, or 
oval artichoke, with green head. The head is oval, the 
scales open, and not turned in at the top, as in the globe 
sort. Globe, or largest, with dusky, purplish head. The 
scales are turned in at top, and the receptacle more succu- 
lent than the other. The dwarfish globe, a prolific variety, 
and valuable as occupying little room with its head. The 
globe kind is the only one usually cultivated in this coun- 
try. 

In making new plantations, select deep, rich, light loam, 
not liable to retain much wet in winter, nor to be very dry 



AilTiCIiOKE. 19 

in.summer. Let it have a gentle slope, sufficient lo ^;arry off 
any moisture that might lodge in the tre]iches between the 
rows, for that is more injurious to the roots in winter than 
the severest frost. Lay on a good quantity of rotten dung, 
and trench the ground eighteen inches deep, incorporating 
the manure well therewith, and thoroughly pulverizing 
the ground in digging ; then proceed to slip off the young 
shoots from the mother stools, with ail the roots and fibres 
they may have thrown out, and close the earth about the 
remaining shoots. These being provided, pull off any loose 
hanging leaves, and trim the fibres; then plant them with a 
dibble about four or five inches deep, in rovrs five feet asun- 
der, and two feet apart in the row, leaving part of their green 
tops above ground, and the hearts of the plants free from 
any earth ever thein ; be careful also to give each plant a 
little water to settle the earth about its roots. 

Or, if you have seedling year old plants in a seed bed, 
you may take them up, and after shortening the tap roots 
a little, and dressing their leaves, plant them as above. 

Subsequent culture. — All spring and summer keep thern 
clear from vreeds, by occasionally hoeing between the 
plants ; this, with regular v/aterings in the dry weather of 
summer, is all the culture which they require, till the sea- 
son of production has ternninated. They will produce 
some tolerable heads the same year in August, and thence 
till November ; next year they will head sooner in full 
perfection. By having fresh stools planted every ^vear or 
two, the old and nev/ plantations together furnish a produc- 
tion of heads from June or July till November. Besides 
the main head, several smaller lateral heads generally 
spring from the sides of the stem in succession ; but, in 
order to encourage the principal head to attain the full size, 
most of the side suckers should be detached in young 
grovrths, when their heads are the size of a large egg, 
which in tbeit state are also prepared for some tables. As 
to the continuing main heads, permit them to have full 
growth till the scales begin to diverge considerably, but 
gather them before the fiiowers appear, cutting to each head 
a part of the stalk. When the entire crop on a stem is 
taken, cut off the stem close to the ground, to give the 
pl^.t m.ore strength for nevv shoots." — Ahercromhie. To 
encourage the production of large main heads, some detach 



20 



ARTICHOKE. 



all the lateral heads in a young state. These are common- 
ly in a fit state for eating raw, having attained about one 
third of their proper size ; and they are for this purpose 
frequently sold in Covent Garden market, chiefly to for- 
eigners. Another thing practised, with the same view, is 
the shortening the ends of the large leaves." — Neill^ in 
Ed, Encyc, 

Winter dressing, — Abercrombie says, " First cut down all 
the large leaves, but without hurting the small central ones, 
or the new shoots. Then dig the ground between and along 
each row ; raising it gradually from both sides, ridge ways, 
over the roots, and close about the plants. In rigorous frosty 
weather, cover also in the litter, and close about each plant." 
Armstrong remarks, that various means have been em- 
ployed for preserving the outstanding plants during the 
winter. That which is most commonly used is, after strip- 
ping off the dead or decaying leaves, and trimming down 
the sound ones to three or four inches, to open trenches 
around the plant, and to draw about it the earth furnished 
by these. This is again covered with long dung or stable 
litter, so as entirely to exclude rain, and snow, and frost. 
But, m making those provisions against cold and wet weath- 
er, we must not forget, that it is possible to be careful over- 
much ; for if the mounds of earth and litter be large and 
close, we expose our plants to suffocation from want of air; 
to exhaustion from a continued vegetation, and to scorch- 
ing, from the fermentation of the covering matter, which, 
if the weather be wet, and but occasionally warm, seldom 
fails to occur. 

^' To obviate these difficulties, it has been proposed, that 
the mounds be gradually formed ; that the first covering be 
merely a wrapping of long dung, and that the additions 
made to it be conformed to the weather, leaving openings, 
in all cases, on its southern side, for the purposes of venti- 
lation, and in no case to permit the covering to exceed two 
feet in thickness. But even this mode of treatment is not 
free from objection ; for, first, the direct application of the 
dung to the plant mil always alter its fiavour, and very 
much degrade it; and again, the capriciousness of the 
weather does not generally give either warning of its chan- 
ges, or time to accommodate ourselves to them ; they often 
take place in the night, and often (whether in the night, or in 



ARTICHOKE. 



21 



the day) under circumstances which prevent us from giving 
the plant the additional covering it may require. Two 
other methods, therefore, not dissimilar in themselves, have 
been suggested — the one to employ hollow cylinders of 
earthen ware, covered with a tile or piece of slate, and of 
capacity sufficient to embrace the plant ; the other to form 
caps of straw, (such as are used for lodging bees,) and 
having a moveable top cf the same material. To the last 
method we see no room for objection ; in application it is 
easy, requiring no skill and but littie labour, w^hiie the ma- 
terial and ^vorkmanship are both cheap and durable, and 
their property of excluding rain, snow and frost, not to be 
doubted." 

Spring dressing. — In spring, the litter and earth being 
removed in March or April, (April or May in this country,) 
according to the season, the stocks are examined; and two 
or three of the strongest or best shoots being selected for 
growing, the rest are removed by pressure with the thumb, 
or by a knife, or wooden chisel. Those shoots, or suckers, 
are used for new plantations. Dig the whole ground level, 
loosening it to the crovm of the roots of every plant." — - 
Loudon. 

Duration of. ike plants. — " Artichoke plants continue pro- 
ductive for several years ; but, every season, some well 
rotted dung, or fresh sea-weed, should be delved into the 
ground at the winter dressing. It is certain, however, that, 
after a fevf years, the plants begin to degenerate, the heads 
becoming smaller and less succulent. It is therefore a 
general rule, not to keep an artichoke plantation beyond 
four, or, at most, six years. Scarcely any kind of grub oi 
wire-worm ever touches the roots of artichokes : they 
form, therefore, an excellent preparative for a crop of on- 
ions, shallot or garlic. In many gardens, a small new 
plantation is formed every year; and in this way the arti- 
choke season, vv^hich begins in June, is prolonged till 
November ; those from the old stock continuing till August, 
when those from the new stocks come in. If the last 
gathered be cut with the stems at full length, and if these 
be stuck among moist sand, the heads may be preserved a 
month longer. 

Seed* — The heads, vvhen suffered to remain ten days, 
or a fortnight, after the season of cutting, expand the calix 



22 



ASPARAGUS. 



leaves, and display an aggregation of jagged purple florets, 
producing a fine appearance. When ripe seed is wanted, 
those heads in flower are to be bent down, and retained in 
that position, so as that the calix may throw ofl* the autum- 
nal rains. In general, however, the seed is not perfected 
in our [the British] climate." — Loudon. Armstrong says, 
" Every gardener, who understands his trade, will take care 
to set apart a few of the finest heads of his own crop for 
seed ; but, as the stock is upright, and the head so formed 
as to receive and hold water, it often happens that the 
seeds rot. To prevent this, the stems of the plants, so set 
apart, should be tied to stakes driven into the ground near 
them, and gradually bent, so as to give to the heads that 
degree of declination, that will be sufiicient to carry off the 
water, that may fall upon them." 

Use. — In England, the full heads only are eaten, always 
boiled. In Italy, they eat the young heads raw, with oil, 
salt and pepper. The stalks are eaten in France and Grer- 
many, boiled and seasoned with butter and vinegar. The 
flowers have the property of rennet, and have sometimes 
been used as a substitute for that article. 

KSV KRKGVS,— Asparagus officinalis. — <S'oiZ.— Asparagus 
ground should be light, yet rich: a sandy loam, well mixed 
with rotten dung, or sea-weed, is recommended. 

Prepm-ation. — A good quantity of dung trenched twelve 
or fifteen inches below the surface. 

Propagation, — It is best to raise this plant from seeds, 
although the sprouts from seeds will not be fit to cut so 
soon by a year as from the roots. The seeds should be 
dead ripe, when gathered, and taken from the strongest 
and most compact shoots. 

Quantity of seeds or roots. — If sown to transplant, for a 
bed four feet and a half wide by six feet in length, one 
quart of seed will be requisite. If sown to remain, for a 
bed four feet and a half wide by thirty feet in length, one 
pint is necessary. If plants a year old are wanted for a 
plantation, then for a bed four feet and a half wide by thirty 
feet in length, to contain four rows of plants nine inches 
distant in the row, one hundred and sixty plants will be 
requisite. The seeds may be sown as early as the season 
will permit in the spring, or (according to Cobbett) "three 
weeks, or about, before the frost sets in" in the fall — and 



ASPARAGUS. 



23 



^ press the earth well down about the seed ; and, as soon 
as the frost sets in, but not before, cover the ground with 
muck or litter, a foot deep, and lay some boards or poles to 
prevent its blowing off. As soon as the frost breaks up in 
the spring, take off the litter, and you will have the plants 
quickly up." 

Asparagus beds may be from four to four and a half feet 
wide, with alleys of two feet in width between them. In 
these beds " the soil should not be less than two feet and a 
half deep, and, before planting a bed, it is considered good 
practice to trench it over to that depth, burying plenty of dung 
in the bottom, as no more can be applied there for eight or 
ten years. It can scarcely, therefore, be too well dunged ; be- 
sides, though the plant naturally grows in poor, sandy soil, 
it is found that the sweetness and tenderness of the shoots 
depend very much on the rapidity of the growth ; and this 
is promoted by the richness of the soil. Damp ground, or 
a wet subsoil, is not fit for asparagus. Indeed the French 
consider wetness as so prejudicial to this plant, that they 
raise their asparagus beds about a foot above the alleys, in 
order to throw off the rain." — Hort. Trans* 

Method of planting, — " Stretch a line lengthwise the bed 
nine inches from the edge, and with a spade cut out a small 
trench about six inches deep, perpendicular next to the 
line, turning the earth displaced along by the other side of 
the trench ; and, having the plants ready, set a row along 
the trench, nine inches apart, with the crown of the roots 
two inches below the surface, drawing some earth, just to 
fix them as placed. Having planted one row, directly 
cover them in fully with the earth of the trench, raking 
it back regularly an equal depth over the crown of the 
plants. Proceed then to open another trench a foot from 
the first : plant it as above ; and in the same manner plant 
four rows in each bed. Then, lightly raking the beds 
lengthwise, draw off any stones and hard clods, and dress the 
surface neat and even. Then let the edges be lined out in 
exact order, allowing three feet for each alley. But some- 
times, in planting large compartments of asparagus, a first 
trench having been made, and the roots placed as above, 
then a second trench is opened, of which the earth is turn- 
ed into the first over the plants. So proceed in planting 
the whole ; making allowance between every four rows for 



24 



ASPARAGUS. 



an alley of three feet [more or less] . In a dry spring or 
summer, water the roots from time to time, till the plants 
are established." — Ahercromhie, It is of very great im- 
portance to take up the roots carefully, and expose them to 
the air as little as possible before planting. 

If you would raise asparagus directly from seed, 
without transplanting, you may sow two or three seeds in 
the places designated above for setting the plants, and cover 
them Vvdth an inch of good soil. When the plants are up, 
they should be thinned to one in a place. Armstrong says, 
" the crowns of the roots must be placed upright, and the 
pattes^ [or fingers,] as they are sometimes called, spread 
and directed downwards ; for on their taking (to the food 
provided for them) the prosperity of the plantation wdll 
principally depend." 

The following are the directions for the culture of this 
root, given in the Catalogue of Seedsy &c. for sale by 
John B. Russell, Boston ; and, perhaps, are as much to 
the purpose as those which are more prolix, minute and 
circumstantial : 

" Sovv^n in April and May, in the same manner as onions, 
in rows, eighteen inches apart. Let it^ stand one or two 
years — transplant into trenches four feet wide, dug, if the 
soil will admit, fifteen inches deep — fill up six inches with 
rotten manure — place the roots fourteen inches apart." 

In a Treatise on Gardening^ by J. Armstrong, of Dutch- 
ess, published in Memoirs of the New York Board of 
Agriculture^ vol. ii., it is said, " If we can postpone the 
use of the plant for a year or two, sowing is to be prefer- 
red, because the crop it gives, (other things being equal,) 
though later in coming, is more abundant, of better quality, 
and of longer duration ; but, if our supply must be prompt, 
planting is best, for, by this mode, we, no doubt, soonest 
obtain the fruit." 

The same VvTiter directs to plant roots of three years old, 
instead of those of one or two years old, according to 
the usual practice ; and says, " roots of three years will 
not only give fruit sooner than those of one, or two years, 
but, their fibres being harder, and roots more numerous, are 
better able to sustain the violence inseparable from trans- 
plantation, and the other accidents, (such as heating and 



ASPARAGUS. 



25 



chafing,) which often accompany it, particularly if the 
roots be brought from a distance." 

Extent of the plantation. — An asparagus compartment 
should not contain less than a pole of ground, as it often 
needs this quantity to furnish a good dish at one time. For 
a large family, about sixteen rods are kept in a productive 
state, which are calculated to furnish, on an average, be- 
tween two hundred and three hundred shoots every day hi 
the height of the season. — iVei/Z, in Ed. Encyc. 

Progressive culture. — In the month of March or April, 
(during the whole existence of the plant,) the beds must 
be carefully forked and dressed, and kept clear of weeds. 
Occasional waterings are necessary, till the third or fourth 
year, wnen the plants will be sufficiently established to do 
without them. Permit the entire crop the two first years, 
and the greater part of it the third year, to run up to stalks. 
It is a common practice to sow onions, lettuce, &c. the two 
first years. Mr. Loudon, however, says, " the advantage 
of this practice is questionable ; and, at all events, it should 
not be continued after the plants are in full bearing." 

Asparagus beds should be completely loosened to u mod- 
erate depth, every spring, as soon as the frost is out of the 
ground, with a proper fork, having three short tines, six to 
eight or nine inches long. But care must be taken not to 
go too deep, so as to wound the crowns of the roots. The 
beds, being loosened in every part to a moderate depth, 
should be raked even, before the buds begin to advance 
In autumn, after the tops are turned white by the frost, 
they should be cleared off, and a layer of dung, or rich 
soil, an inch thick, laid over the bed. This should be done 
yearly, and the bed kept clear of weeds. If the bed should 
get too high by this management, the surface may be taken 
off vv^ith a spade, early in the spring, to the depth of twc 
inches, before the young shoots are in the way. But wher 
this is done, a thin dressing of rotten dung or compost 
should be laid on. This plant, according to Beane^s N. 
E. Farmer^ grows well in ground that is shaded. The 
sprouts will be very large and tender ; but they will not be 
so early. It is not amiss to have one bed in a shady place, 
to supply the table, after the season is over for cutting the 
first. ^ 

Ti^ne of cutting. — " If you plant roots, the snoots may be 
3 



36 



ASPARAGUS. 



cut the second year after ; if seeds, they will not be fit to 
cut till the third year. All the shoots, which come up be- 
fore the middle of June, may be cut off without injuring 
the roots ; after which time, the late shoots should be left 
to run up, and go to seed ; otherwise the roots will be weak- 
ened." — Deane. 

Cutting and gathering. — " In new plantations, be careful 
not to begin cutting till the stools have become mature, or the 
third or fourth year. Likewise observe, both in old and new 
beds, to gather all the produce in a regular, successive order, 
within the proper limits of the season. As the rising shoots 
project two, three, four or five inches, at most, above the 
ground, while the top bud remains close and plump, they are 
in the best condition for gathering. Cut them off within the 
ground, with a narrow, sharp-pointed knife, or small saw, 
nine inches long ; thrusting the knife or saw down straight, 
close to each shoot separately, cut it off slantingly, about 
three inches below the surface, with care not to wound the 
young buds advancing below. Observe in a new planta- 
tion, in the first year's gathering, if the shoots come up of 
irregular sizes, to cut only some of the larger for a fort- 
night, or three or four weeks, and then permit the whole 
to run ; but otherwise, when in strong production, gather 
all as they come, two or three times a week, or as required 
during the season, till the 21st of June ; then, at furthest, 
terminate the cutting, and permit the after-shoots to run up 
in stalk till October. If, from a particular inducement, you 
cut later than the 21st of June, be careful to leave two or 
more shoots to each stool, in order to draw nourishment to 
it ; for the stools left without growing shoots will perish ; 
and, by negligence in this respect, many vacuities or unpro- 
ductive spots are left in beds.'' 

Duration of the plantation. — Abercrombie says, A plan- 
tation of asparagus, under good culture, will mostly continue 
for ten or twelve years to afford good crops ; after which 
the stools usually decline in fertility, and the shoots in qual- 
ity ; so that, to provide a permanent annual supply, some 
fresh beds should be planted a sufficient time beforehand, 
allowing four years for their advancing to a productive 
state." 

To save asparagus seed. — " Select some of the finest and 
earliest heads as they make their appearance in the spring ; 



ASPARAGUS. 



27 



tie them to stakes during summer, taking care not to 
drive the stake through the crown of the plant. In autumn, 
when the berries are ripe, wash out the seeds, if for the 
market, or to be sent to a distance ; but for home sowing, 
keep them in the berry till the time of sowing, the pulp 
being a great nourishment to the seed, which ought to be 
kept in a dry place during the winter." — Hort. Trans, 

The following directions for cultivating asparagus are 
from the second volume of the Memoirs of the New York 
Board of Agriculture, They were furnished by Richard 
Treat, the oldest gardener at the Shaker village in New 
Lebanon, Columbia county. New York : — 

" Beds should be made as soon as the ground is clear from 
frost — the first part of April, in ordinary seasons. The 
ground must be well worked to the depth of a spade blade, 
and intimately mixed with rotted horse-manure. The seeds 
should then be sowed in rows or drills, twenty inches apart 
and one inch deep, the rows crosswise of the beds. They 
should be raked in lengthwise of the rows. 

" Asparagus will be large enough to begin to cut the 
third spring after it is sowed. It may be cut until the 20th 
June every year afterwards. As soon as the cutting season 
is over, hoe it over lightly, so as to loosen the soil, and make 
the surface even. Every other year, spread on each bed 
an inch layer of good yard-manure before hoeing. The 
tops will now grow to a great size, and mostly seed well. 
Early in the spring, cut the dry tops close to the ground, 
lay them evenly on the beds, and burn them there. Then 
hoe the beds over, and rake them again. They are then 
prepared for a new^ growth. 

" Most of the English, books recommend breaking up 
old asparagus beds once in a certain number of years. 
Some of the Shakers' beds have been cut twenty-five years, 
and, under that course of treatment, are as good as they 
ever were." 

Armstrong, in the treatise quoted above, says, " It has been 
lately asserted, and with sufficient confidence, that a pickle 
of salt and water, of the ordinary strength for preserving 
meat, may be very usefully applied to asparagus beds in the 
spring. The effects ascribed to it are, its stimulating pow- 
er over the crop, and its tendency to destroy the seeds of 
weeds, and of insects lying uear the surface. Experiments 



28 



BALM. 



on this subject should be multipliedj and with pickles dif- 
fering in strength and quality." In the last edition of 
Deane^s New England Farmer^ it is observed, " that to a 
bed fifty feet by six, a bushel of salt may be applied, with 
good effect, before the plants start in the spring." 

Use. — " The esculent part is the early shoots or buds, w^hen 
three or four inches high, and partially emerged from the 
ground in May or June. They are in great esteem in Britain, 
and on the continent ; and this plant has, in consequence, 
been cultivated for an unknown period. In Paris, it is much 
resorted to by the sedentary operative classes, when they 
are troubled with symptoms of gravel or stone." — Loudon, 

Forcing asparagus in hot beds. — The first step in this pro- 
cess is to procure a supply of three year old plants, for none 
else are fit for the purpose. Then form a hot bed, as di- 
rected under the article Hot-bed, in the alphabetical ar- 
rangement of this work. In this set the plants, at the dis- 
tance of two mches. Armstrong observes, that the mode 
of taking the plants from hot beds " differs from that used 
for plants raised in the natural w^ay. If you employ a knife, 
f ou cannot fail to destroy many young plants, (on account 
of the closeness with which they stand to each other,) but 
the mode in which you do least mischief, is, to thrust your 
finger down alongside of the bud, and break it off at the 

700t." 

BALM. — Melissa officinalis, — " The balm is a hardy pe- 
renni-;'. with square stems, which rise two feet high or more, 
furnisiied with large ovate leaves, growing by pairs at each 
joint. It is a native of Switzerland and the south of 
France, produces flowers of a purplish colour from June to 
October." There is a variety with hairy leaves. 

Propagation, — " It is readily propagated by parting the 
roots, preserving two or three buds to each piece, or by 
slips, either in autumn or spring." — Loudon, 

Culture, — " Pla^t the slips or sets in any bed of common 
earth, by dibble or trowel, and from eight inches to a foot 
apart, giving water, if dry weather. Those of the spring 
planting will soon grow freely for use the same year ; and 
afterwards will increase by the root into large bunches of 
several years' continuance, furnishing annual supplies from 
March to September." — Loudon, 

Dried Balm, — " Gather when coming into flower, and 



BARLEY. 



29 



when the leaves are entirely free from dew or moisture ; 
then dry rapidly in the shade, or better in an oven ; and 
when cool press the herbage into packages, and wrap them 
up in white paper till wanted for use. Keep the packages 
dry, and in a close drawer." — Loudon, 

Use, — Formerly the balm was held in very high esti- 
mation : Paracelsus supposed it to possess virtues, by which 
human life could be prolonged beyond the usual period. In 
modern times, however, the properties of this agreeable 
plant are better understood : it yields, by distillation, a 
small proportion of an essential oil, of a yellowish colour, 
and a very grateful smell. A few drops of this oil, diluted 
in a glass of simple water, or strong infusions of the young 
shoots, drank as tea, and continued for several weeks or 
months, have proved of service to nervous and hypochondri- 
acal patients, of a lax and debilitated habit. Either of these 
liquid preparations, when slightly acidulated with lemon 
juice, acquire a fine reddish colour, and may be taken with 
advantage in dry, parching fevers, as well as in cases of dis- 
tressing flatulency, attended with eructations, where the 
first passages have previously been opened." — Dom, Ency. 
vol. i. p. 127. 

BARLEY. — Hordeum. — The following remarks on the 
cultivation of this grain are extracted from an article written 
by Jesse Buel, Esq., published in the N, E, Farmer^ vol. v. 
p. 290 :— 

" The soil for barley should be such as will grow good 
turnips, or other green crops, including clovers, and which 
embrace the varieties of loams and sands that are not wet, 
or very dry and poor. Indeed, I have taken my crops, and 
they have been pretty good, from my lightest turnip soils. 
Barley cannot be cultivated to advantage upon stiff, heavy, 
and wet grounds, or on such as are of a cold and tenacious 
quality. This crop occupies the ground but about three 
months ; and it is only in a dry, light, mellow soil, that its 
roots can extend with sufficient facility, and supply the food 
necessary to bring the grain to rapid and perfect maturity. 

" Previous crop, — Crops that precede this grain should 
be such as leave the ground mellow, and free from weeds; 
and for this reason hoed crops are to be preferred, such as 
turnips, potatoes, peas, beans, &c. Small grains should 
not precede it : they impoverish the soil, leave it foul, and, 



30 



BARLEY. 



besides, it is contravening one of the most salutary maxims 
of husbandry, to grow two dry crops in succession. It may 
follow clover ; but if the soil is heavy, the ley should be 
ploughed in autumn. Barley is successfully sown upon the 
fallows in England, (not summer, but autumn fallows,) and 
is sown sometimes after wheat ; but in the latter case tur- 
nips are pulled, and previously fed upon the stubble — a prac- 
tice which I think is not likely to obtain here. I have 
generally sown barley after ruta baga or potatoes, these 
crops having received a good dressing of long, yard or stable- 
manure. 

" Manure should not be applied to the barley, but to the 
preceding crop. The short period that this grain occupies 
the ground does not afford time for the manure to decom- 
pose, and yield its food to the plants ; and, if applied in ex- 
cess, it causes a too rank vegetation, and the straw lodges 
before the grain is matured. Where a fallow or clover ley 
is employed, and ploughed in autumn, dung may be pre- 
viously applied and ploughed under. 

u Preparation of the ground. — Where barley follows a 
root or hoed crop, one ploughing will generally suffice : 
but in all cases a complete pulverization of the soil is neces- 
sary ; and to effect this a roller is often of material benefit. 
If sown upon grass leys, ploughed in autumn, the spring 
ploughing should be shallow, so as to leave the sod re- 
versed. But the preferable way may be to harrov/ the fal- 
I0V/5 plough in the seed, with a light furrov/, and smooth 
off Vrith the harrow. 

Tke seed^ and sowing. — Loudon enumerates six species 
and Gub-species of the barley. The kinds uniformly culti- 
vated here are the two, four, and six rowed spring, (Jiorde- 
im mdgare^ and h. distichon.) Thin-skinned, pale, plump 
seed should be selected. I sow as soon as the ground is 
sufiiciently dry in spring. The young grain is not hurt by 
the ordinary frosts of the latter part of April and May. I 
sow from six to eight pecks per acre, according to the rich- 
ness of the soil and the forwardness of the season ; the 
poorest ground and the latest sov/ing requiring the most 
seed. In England the common quantity of seed is from 
eight to sixteen pecks. Our climate being much warmer 
than that of Great Britain, barley and other grains till better 
with us, and consequently we require less seed. We uni- 



BARLEY. 



31 



formly sow broad-cast, generally on the fresh furrow, and 
harrow in both ways ; and those who have a roller use it 
in the finishing operation. It gives a smooth surface, breaks 
down the lumps, brings the earth in contact with the seed, 
and if grass seeds have been sov/n, its use is doubly benefi- 
cial. I steep my seed twenty-four hours in a weak solution of 
nitre, the crude kind of which costs me only eight cents per 
pound by the quantity. From the analysis and observa- 
tions of Grisenthwaite, there is reason to believe that this 
salt is peculiarly beneficial to the barley crop, the grain 
yielding it on analysis. I have made no comparative ex- 
periments, but I think this steep serviceable. I have ap- 
plied to this grain, as a top dressing, with singular success, 
the powdered dung of pigeons and dunghill fowls^ at the 
rate of twenty to thirty bushels the acre. 

"The crop admits of no after-culture when sown broad- 
east. Yet the application of the roller, when the plants are 
two or three inches high, is no doubt salutary, especially if 
there has been no considerable rains. Rolling gives a salu- 
tary compression to the soil, which in the spring is apt to 
be loose and porous, and full of cracks, by the alternation 
of freezing and thawing, or of wet and dry weather ; it de- 
stroys many insects ; and, above all, it partially buries the 
crowns of the plants, and induces a multiplication of seed 
dtalks. I can recommend the practice from experience. — 
When grass seeds are sown with barley, the luxuriance of 
ihe young grass sometimes chokes the grain, robs it of nu- 
triment, and sensibly diminishes the product. To obviate 
this evil, it has been recommended to sow the grass seeds 
after the barley has come up, and to cover them with a 
light harrow and the roller ; and it is said, and I think with 
truth, that this operation will not materially injure the grain. 
In dry seasons, the crop is sometimes attacked by worms, 
while young. In this case the roller should be applied, and 
sufficient weight added, to require the draught of two or 
three cattle. 

" Time and method of harvesting, — When the soil is rich, 
and the season propitious, this grain is very liable to lodge. 
If this happens after it has blossomed, no material injury is 
sustained in the product. If before, the crop is greatly di- 
minished. This shows the danger to be apprehen^e^frani 
making the soil too rich, and of applying fresh manure. 



32 



BARLEY. 



Barley is known to be ripe by the disappearance of the 
reddish cast on the ear, or what the English farmers term 
red roan ; by the ears beginning to droop, and bend them- 
selves romid against the stems ; and by the stalks becoming 
brittle, and of a yellowish colour. This is the particular 
period for cutting, as, if suflferfed to stand longer, the heads 
break off, and the grain wastes, with the slightest touch. 
And it may be cut with the cradle, sickle or sithe, accord- 
ing to circumstances. If it stands straight, and is not too 
heavy, the cradle is to be preferred ; if heavy, or lodged, 
the sickle or sithe. But, as the grain is yet soft, and the 
straw contains much moisture, when it ought to be cut, it 
should be suffered to become well dried in the swath be- 
fore it is bound in sheaves, or carried to the barn or stack. 
If cut with the cradle or sickle, it is bound in sheaves ; but 
the more common practice is to cut the crop with the sithe, 
rake the ground, and load it with the barley fork. 

" Barley improves for malting by lying till October before 
it is threshed ; though it is often threshed immediately from 
the field. The great difficulty in preparing it for market is 
to rid it of the awns. This may be done with flails, after 
it has passed once through the fanning mill. And, where 
it is in great quantities, it may be spread from four to six 
inches upon the barn floor, and trodden w ith horses. 

Produce and profits,— The average product in England 
is stated by Donaldson at thirty-two bushels per acre. The 
product in New York varies from fifteen to seventy bushels, 
according to season and soil ; and I think the average is 
somewhat short of that of Great Britain. Compared with 
wheat, its product is as two or two and a half to one ; com- 
pared with oats, about equal, provided the soil is adapted 
to this grain. It is, however, to be remembered, that neither 
wheat nor oats are adapted to a barley soil ; the first requir- 
ing a more stiff" and tenacious, and the latter a more cold 
and moist location. The average price of barley is at least 
two thirds that of wheat : supposing wheat, then, to be $ 1 12 
the bushel, and the product 15 bushels per acre, and barley 
to be 75 cents, and the product of an acre 30 bushels, and 
the expense of cultivation equal, the profits of the barley 
will be nearly as three to two compared to wheat. Barley, 
besides, is a less precarious crop, is subject to fewer dis- 



BEAN* 



33 



eases, and has fewer insect enemies to encounter than 
wheat" 

A correspondent of the Bath Agricultural Society writes — 
" The last spring being remarkably dry, I soaked my seed 
barley in the black water, taken from a resei-voir, which 
constantly receives the draining of my dung heap and sta- 
bles. As the light grains floated on the top, I skimmed them 
off, and let the rest stand 24 hours. On taking it from the 
water, I mixed the grain with a sufficient quantity of sifted 
wood ashes, to make it spread regularly, and sowed three 
fields with it The produce was sixty bushels per acre. 
I sowed some other fields with the same seed dry, but the 
crop, like those of my neighbours, was very poor, not more 
than twenty bushels per acre, and much mixed with green 
corn and weeds when harvested. I also sowed some of 
my seed dry on one ridge in each of my former fields, but 
the produce was very poor in comparison of the other parts 
of the field." 

BE AX. — Vicia faba. — There are two distinct species of 
the bean, which are often confounded by writers on agricul- 
tural subjects, to wit J vicia faba, garden bean,or horse bean, 
and pkaseoliis vulgaris^ or kidney bean. The want of distin- 
guishing between these two difterent genera or sorts of 
plants, may lead to erroneous practices, and consequent 
detriment to the cultivator. 

The vicia faba^ or garden bean, (often called English 
bean^) is an annual plant, rising from two to four feet high, 
with a thick, angular stem, the leaves divided, and without 
tendrils ; the flowers w^hite, w^ith a black spot in the middle 
of the ing ; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and en- 
closing the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which 
the plant is cultivated in gardens. The following varieties 
are advertised for sale in Mr. Russell's Catalogue, viz. 



English dwarfs, 
Early mazagan, 
Sword long pod, 



Green nonpareil, 
Broad Windsor. 



^' These varieties should be planted as early as practica- 
ble in April." 

It is said that this kind of bean is propagated to the best 
advantage in a stiff, moist loam, with a considerable propor- 
tion of clay. The following are Mr. Loudon's directions 
for its culture • — 



34 



BEAN. 



Quantity of seeds, — For early crops, one pint of seed will 
be requisite for every eighty feet of row ; for main crops, 
two quarts for every 240 feet of row ; and for late crops, 
nearly the same as the early. 

Method of sowing. — " Plant ail the sorts in rows, two feet 
and a half apart, for the smaller or very early, or very late 
kinds; and three feet for the larger; the smaller beans tw^o 
inches deep, and three inches distant in the row; the larger 
three inches deep, and four inches distant in the row." 

Transplanting. — Speechly constantly transplants his early 
bean crops, and considers that this plant may be as easily 
transplanted as cabbage, or any other vegetable.. It is a prac- 
tice w^ith him to plant beans, alternately with potatoes, in 
the same row ; the rovvs three feet apart, and the potatoes 
eighteen inches apart in the row, so that the beans are nine 
inches from the potatoes^ The beans are transplanted, by 
which means they have the start and advantage of the po- 
tatoes and weeds, and, as they come in early, may be gath- 
ered before they can possibly incommode or injure the 
potatoes. 

Manual process. — The w^ork of sowing is most generally 
effected by a dibble, having a thick, blunt end, to make a 
wide aperture for each bean, to admit it clear to the bottom, 
without any narrow, hollow parts below : strike the earth 
fully and regularly into the holes over the inserted beans* 
Or the planting may be performed, occasionally, in drills 
drawn with a hoe the proper depth and distance as above ; 
place the beans at intervals along the bottom of each drill, 
and earth them over evenly; which method, though suitable 
to any kinds, may be more particularly adopted in sowing 
the early and other small sorts. 

Soaking seed in summer. — In planting late crops in June 
or July, if the weather be dry, it is eligible to give the beans, 
a previous soaking for several hours in soft water; or, if 
they are to be sown in drills, water the drills beforehand ; 
then directly put in the beans, and earth tbem in while the 
ground remains moist. 

Subsequent culture. — " As the plants come up, and ad- 
vance from four to six inches high, hoe up some earth to the 
stems on both sides of each rov/, cutting down all weeds* 
Repeat the hoeing as future weeds arise, both to keep the 
ground about the plants clean^ and to loosen the earth to 



BEAN. 



35 



encourage their growth. In earthing up, great care must 
be taken that the earth does not fall on the centre of the 
plant, so as to bury it ; for this occasions it to rot or fail. 
After earthing up, stir between the rows with a three- 
pronged fork. As the different crops come into full blos- 
som, pinch or cut off the tops, in order to promote their 
fmiting sooner in a more plentiful production of well-filled 
pods. " — Abercromhie, 

Nichol says, Topping is unnecessary for any but the 
early crops ) being practised to render them more ear- 
ly." Mr. Armstrong is of opinion, that of this practice, 
and of the theory on which it is founded, we may be per- 
mitted to doubt, because it does not appear to follow that, 
w^hen the grow^th of a plant is checked or suspended in one 
direction, it will not exert itself in another as injuriously to 
the crop as any increased length of stem would have done. 
Every day's experience shows, that, if we pollard an apple- 
tree, we indeed stop its growth upw^ard; but that, instead ot 
sending its surplus juices to the support and enlargement of 
the fruit, (as this practice supposes,) it hastens to throw 
out lateral stems or suckers, which give no fruit whatever. 
Our creed, therefore, is, that, in the vegetable economy, 
certain juices go to the production of the stem, and certain 
others, more elaborated, and of a different quality, to that of 
flowers and fruits, and that, whether desirable or not, the 
art of giving to either a destination different from what na-^ 
ture intended, is yet to be discovered." 

Gathering. — For table use, gather only such as are ten- 
der, the seeds decreasing in delicacy after they obtain about 
half the size which they should possess at maturity. When 
they become black-eyed, they are tough and strong tasted, 
and much inferior. 

To save seed, — " Either plant some of the approved sorts 
early in the spring, w^holly for that purpose, or leave rows 
of the different crops ungathered, in preference to the glean- 
ings of gathered crops. The pods will ripen in August, 
becoming brow^n and dry, and the beans dry and hard : 
then, pulling up the stalks, place them in the sun to harden 
the seed thoroughly, after which thresh out each sort sepa- 
rately." — Abercromhie, 

Use, — Mr. Cobbett says, " In England there are some 
sorts of this bean used for horses and hogs ; but there are 



36 



BEAN* 



several sorts used as human food. It is at best a coarse and 
not very wholesome vegetable, yet some people like it. It 
' 'jateu by the country people, in England, with 
aiong ^vi;h which it is boiled." Bean hour, as 
vvily ocsci c.:, is probably more nutritive than that 
..i .ats^ which appears by its ellect in fattening hogs, and, 
from the relative prices of these articles, he was of opinion, 
that peas and beans, in general, supply a cheaper provender 
for horses and other animals. But as the flour of beans 
and peas is more oily than that of oats, it must be more 
difficult of digestion. Hence, when a horse has been fed 
with pulse, he v* ill be less active for an hour or two after- 
wards, than if he had eaten oats. It will, therefore, be 
advisable to mix pollard or strav/, finely cut, with peas and 
beans, before they are given to cattle. 

BEAN, KIDNEY.— Phaseolus vulgaris,— This plant 
and its uses are too well known to require any description* 
The sorts mentioned in Russell's Catalogue, are Kidnei/ 
dwarfs^ or string : — early yellow cranberry; early Mohawk^ 
(which will bear a smart frost without injury;) early yel- 
low six weeks ; early Canadian dwarf ; early dwarf cluster; 
'^arly dun coloured, or Quaker ; early China dwarf; large 
vvhite kidney dwarf; white cranberry dwarf; red cranberry 
dwarf ; Warrington, or marrow ; refugee, or thousand to one ; 
Rob Roy ; w^hite cutlass bean of Carolina. Pole or runnmg 
beam: — -large white Lima; saba or Carolina; scarlet run- 
ners ; white Dutch runners ; Dutch case-knife, or princess ; 
red cranberry; white cranberry; (the three last mentioned 
string beans ;) asparagus, or yard long, doUchos sesquipedalis. 

The following directions for the culture of the bean in 
gardens are from McMahon : " Towards the latter end of 
April, [or the fore part of May in New England,] you may 
plant a first crop of kidney-beans in the open ground. Select 
a warm, dry, and favourably situated spot, and, having dug 
and manured it properly, draw drills an inch deep, and two 
feet or thirty inches asunder ; drop the beans therein, two 
inches apart, and draw the earth equally over them ; do not 
cover them more than an inch deep ; for at this early time 
they are liable to rot, if cold or wet ensue. The kinds 
proper to be sown now are, the early cream-coloured, 
speckled, yellow and white dwarfs." 

Loudon gives the following directions for the culture of 



BEAN. 



37 



runners^ or pole-beans^ as they are commonly called in this 
country : — The runner kidney beans may be sown in a 
small portion towards the end of April, [about the middle of 
May in New England,] if tolerably warm, dry weather ; but 
as these beans are rather more tender than the dwarf sorts, 
more liable to rot in the ground by wet and cold, especially 
the scarlets, the beginning or middle of May [first of 
June in New England] will be time enough to sow a con- 
siderable crop ; and you may sow a full crop about the 
beginning of June. Allot principally the scarlet and large 
white runners. Some Dutch runners are very eligible as a 
secondary crop. The first crops should have the assistance 
of a south wall. Intermediate crops may be sown in any 
open compartment, or against any fence not looking north. 
The latest sown will continue bearing longer under a good 
aspect and shelter. In sowing, draw drills about an inch 
and a half, or not more than two inches deep. Let paral- 
lel rows be at least four feet asunder, to admit in the inter- 
vals tall sticks or poles for the plants to climb on. Place 
the beans in the drills four inches apart, and earth them iu 
evenly the depth of the drills. A row contiguous to a fence 
or building may ascend upon lines. Some may be sown 
in a single row along a border, or on each side of a walk, 
and have the support of a slight trellis of laths and lines ; or 
they might be arched over with similar materials to form a 
shady walk or bower. In a cold, wet season, or when requi- 
site to have a few plants more forward than the general crop, 
some scarlets may be sown in April, either in a slight hot- 
bed, or in pots, under frames of hand-glasses, to raise and 
forward the plants, till two or three inches high : then, at 
the end of May, transplant them into the open garden. As 
the plants come up, and advance from three to six inches 
in growth, hoe some earth to the stems, cutting down all 
weeds. When they begin to send forth runners, place 
suitable supports to each row ; and conduct the tendrils to 
the sticks or lines, turning them in a contrary direction to 
the sun. The ascending plants will soon come into flower, 
podding at the joints, in long succession. They are so pro- 
lific, that the returns from three sowings, in May, June and 
July, wall last from July till October. 

Taking the crop. — Gather the pods, both from dwarfs and 
runners, while they are young, fleshy, brittle and tender, 
4 



38 



BEAN. 



for then tbey are in the highest perfection for the tahle j 
and the plants will bear more fully, and last longer in fruit, 
under a course of clean gathering, not leaving any super- 
abundant pods to grow old. 

To save seed. — Either sow a portion for that object, or 
leave rows wholly ungathered, of the main crop, or preserve 
a sufficiency of good pods promiscuously. The beans saved 
should be the first fruits of a crop^ sown at a period which 
throws the entire course of growth into the finest part of 
summer. Let them hang on the stalks till they ripen fully, 
in August and September ; then let the haulm be pulled up 
and placed in the sun, to dry and harden the seed, which 
should be afterwards cleared out of the husks, bagged up^ 
and housed. 

The pea, English bean, and kidney bean, are liable to 
the attacks of various insects, especially the aphides^ [plant 
lice,] in dry seasons. When early crops are newly sown, 
pr planted, mice will burrow for and eat the seed, and when 
it begins to penetrate the soil, it is attacked by snails, slugs, 
the cut worm, &c. The usual means of guarding against 
the ravages of insects must, therefore, be resorted to by 
the gardener. 

As regards the field culture of the bean, we would ob- 
serve, that the white kind, which is most generally approved 
of in New England, will produce pretty good crops, on 
poor, sandy, or gravelly soils ; but, when planted on such 
ground, it is good husbandry to wet and roll them in plas- 
ter before planting. They may be planted in hills, or drills, 
the rows two and a half or three feet apart, according to 
the strength of the soil, and cultivated like other hoed 
crops. They may be planted the latter end of May, or 
beginning of June, or about the time of planting Indian 
corn. If planted in hills, they may be placed from fourteen 
to twenty-four inches apart in the rows, and the rows the 
distance before mentioned. Five beans are quite enough 
to remain in a hill. Hogs' dung, mixed with ashes, is said 
to be the best manure for them ; and it is said to be very 
injurious to beans to hoe them while the dew is on, or in 
wet weather. 

Judge Buel, of Albany, has given the following notices 
of some experiments, in the field culture of this vegetable : 
Beans may be cultivated in drills or in hills, They are 



a valuable crop ; and, with good care, are as profitable 
as a wheat crop. They leave the soil in good tilth. The 
China bean, with a red eye, is to be preferred. They ripen 
early, and are very productive. I cultivated beans the last 
year in three different ways, viz. in hills, in drills, and 
sowed broad-cast. I need not describe the first, which is a 
well known process. I had an acre in drills, which was 
the best crop I ever saw. My management was this : — On 
an acre of light ground, w^here the clover had been frozen 
out the preceding winter, I spread eight loads of long ma- 
nure, and immediately ploughed and harrowed the ground. 
Drills or furrows were then made with a light plough, at 
the distance of two and a half feet, and the beans thrown 
along the furrows about the 25th of May, by the hand, at 
the rate of at least a bushel on the acre. I then gauged a 
double mould-board plough, which was passed once be- 
tween the rows, and was followed by a light one horse 
roller, which flattened the ridges. The crop was twice 
cleaned of weeds, by the hoe, but not earthed. The pro- 
duct was more than forty-eight bushels, by actual measure- 
ment. The beans brought me one dollar the bushel last 
fall. The third experiment was likewise upon a piece of 
ground where the clover had been killed. It was ploughed 
about the first of June, the seed sown like peas, upon the 
first furrow, and harrowed in. The drought kept them 
back ; but about 65 rods of ground, on which the experiment 
was made, gave a product of twelve and a half bushels. 
The crop was too ripe when it was harvested, and as it was 
cut with a sithe, I estimated that about two and a half 
bushels were left upon the ground. No labour was be- 
stowed upon them from the time they were sown till they 
were harvested." 

Forwarding an early crop. — The kidney bean is often par- 
tially forced, in hot-houses or frames, with a view to the 
forwarding of its produce in the open garden. Mr. Arm- 
strong says, " In the neighbourhood of cities, the dwarf 
varieties are often cultivated in hot-beds, but the product 
is of a very inferior kind ; for, of the whole catalogue of 
vegetables, none is more apt to take a disagreeable flavour 
from hot and fermenting dung (which is the basis of these 
beds) than the bean." It is probable, however, that beans 
might be forced to advant^e, in hot-beds, composed of oak 



40 



BEET. 



leaves, tanner's bark, &c. without deriving therefrom the 
disagreeable flavour complpJned of. 

BEET. — Beta. — Among the more common varieties of 
this valuable vegetable are. 



French sugar, or amber beet^ 
Mangel wurtzel, 
Green — for stews or soupS; 
Yellow turnip-rooted, 



Early blood turnip-rooted, 
Early dweirf blood, 
Earl^^ white scarcity, 
Long blood red. 



Sown from April to June. The early turnip blood beet 
is the earliest, and of excellent quality for summer use ; the 
tops being good for boiling as greens. Mr. Loudon's direc- 
tions for the general culture of the beet are as follow : — 

^' Seed and soil. — The beet is always raised from seed, 
and for a bed four feet and a half by twelve feet, one ounce 
i« requisite. The soil in which it naturally delights is a 
deep, rich sand, dry and light, rather than moist. So\^'ing in 
seed beds, and transplanting, has been tried ; but, though it 
may answer for the spinage or pot-herb beets, [white, and 
its varieties,] it will not answer where the object is a large, 
clean root. 

" Sowing, — The beet is sown annually the last week of 
March, or beginning of April, [in the northern United States, 
the main crop should be delayed till the middle of May.] 
The ground on which it is sown should have been previ- 
ously enriched by mellow compost and sea sand ; but rank 
dung is not to be laid in, as it is apt to induce canker. For 
the long-rooted kind, trench to the depth of eighteen inches. 
Sow either broad-cast on the rough surface, and rake well 
into the earth ; or, as the seed is large, sow in drills an inch 
or two deep and a foot asunder ; or dot it in -with a thick, 
blunt-ended dibble in rows that distance, making holes ten 
or twelve inches apart, about an inch and a half deep ; drop 
two or three seeds in each hole, but with the intention to 
leave only one beet plant." 

Mr. Mahon says, " Make choice of a piece of rich, deep 
ground, lay it out into four feet wide beds, push the loose 
earth into the alleys, then sow the seed tolerably thin, and 
cover it with the earth out of these alleys to about three 
quarters of an inch deep. Or, let drills be drawn with a 
hoe, near an inch deep, and a foot or a little better asunder ; 
drop the seeds thinly therein, and cover them over the same 



BEET. 



41 



^jepth as above. Or you may sow the seed on a piece of 
ground, rougli, after being dug, and rake it well in." 

Subsequent culture. — When the young plants are advanced 
into leaves, one, two, or three inches in growth, they must 
be thinned and cleared from weeds, especially those sown 
promiscuously, or broad-cast and in drills. If there be 
chasms in the rows, fill them up with the superfluous plants. 
The often er the ground is stirred, during the whole course 
of the vegetation of the plant, the larger will be the product, 
and the better its quality. 

As soon as vegetation is over, which always occurs after 
the first hard frost, take up the plants, expose them a day 
or two to the air, to evaporate their surplus moisture, and 
then house them carefully. This may be done by putting 
them in layers in a dry cellar, and interposing between these 
a slight covering of sand. In digging the roots, great care 
should be taken that they be not broken nor cut, as they 
bleed much. For the same reason, the leaves should be 
cut off at least an inch above the solid part of the root. 

To save seed, — Either leave a few strong roots standing 
in the rows, or select a few, and transplant them to a spot 
where there will be no danger, when in flower, of being im- 
pregnated with any other variety. They will shoot up the 
second year, when their flower-stocks should be tied tQ 
stakes, to prevent their breaking over. 

Field culture of the mangel wurtzel beet^ and the sugar beet. 
— Soil and preparation, — The soil for these roots should be 
a loam, inclining to clay, in good tilth, well manured, and 
made fine to a good depth. John Hare Powel, Esq., cor- 
responding secretary to the Pennsylvania Agricultural So- 
ciety, in giving an account of his mode of cultivating this 
crop, says, " My soil was not naturally strong : it has been 
gradually so much deepened as to enable Wood's plough, 
No. 2, drawn by four oxen, to plough fourteen inches deep 
Fresh barn-yard manure was equally spread upon the sur- 
face, and ploughed under in the early part of April, in quan- 
tities not larger than are generally used for potato crops in 
this country. Early in May, the land was twice stirred with 
Beatson's scarifier, harrowed, rolled ; after stirred, harrowed 
and rolled again in the opposite direction." The soil ox^ 
which Messrs. Tristram Little and Henry Little of New- 
bury, Mass. raised their premium crop in 1824, is a day 
4 * 



42 



BEET. 



loam. In 1823, about three fourths of the same was sowed 
with onionSj and manured with about 8 cords of compost 
manure to the acre. The other quarter was sowed with 
wheat without manure. In the fall of 1823, there were 
about 10 cords of compost manure drawn on the lot, and 
put in a heap. Most of the srdd compost was drawn from 
the salt marshes, when ditching the same ; the other part 
was from the barn-yard. In the month of April, 1824, the 
heap was thrown over, and well mixed. 

Planting, — Col. Powel says, " The holes for the seeds 
were made by a wheel, containing pegs in its circumference, 
which penetrated the ground about an inch, leaving inter- 
vals of four inches ; the rows were made 2 feet asunder ; 
two capsules were dropped into each hole ; the wheel of a 
common barrow was passed over them, thus compressing 
the earth, and leaving a slight rut for the retention of mois- 
ture." 

Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little observe, that, " Be- 
tween the 8th and 11th of May, the land was ploughed 
and sowed in the following manner : — After one deep plough- 
ing, the ground was furrowed two and a half feet apart, and 
the manure put into the furrows, and covered with a double 
mould-board plough ; a roller was then passed on the top 
of the ridge, and the seed dibbled in with the finger over 
the manure, about six or eight inches apart." The quantity 
of seed, according to English writers, is four pounds to an 
acre. Mr. David Little, in obtaining a premium crop, sowed 
four pounds, but observed that he thought half that quantity 
would have been sufficient. 

After-culture, — In raising Col. Powel's crop, " A small 
cultivator, which I had contrived for the purpose, was 
drawn between the rows soon after the weeds appeared ; 
a three inch triangular hoe removed the alternate plants, 
leaving the others at distances varying from 8 to 12 inches 
asunder. The cultivator was twice used before the 20th of 
July. The heavy rains of August made another hoeing 
necessary, and surcharged the ground so much with mois- 
ture, that all roots increased much less in that month than 
during the same time in the two last years." The Messrs. 
Little, " in the course of the season, thinned their plants, 
and left them from 6 to 12 inches apart in the rows. They 
were once hoed, and ploughed three times between the 



BEET. 



43 



rows." Mr. Powel, in raising a previous crop, had placed 
the rows 30 inches apart, and left the plants 6 inches apart 
in the rows. He cays, I this year desired smaller roots, 
which might grow so closely, as, by their leaves, to protect 
the soil as much as pos-^jble from the rays of the sun. My 
cultivator, by its peculiar iOi^.i, enabled me to cut off the 
weeds when the plants were so young, that, if I had applied 
the plough, their crowns must have been covered in many 
instances, by earth occasionally falling from its land side. 
The failure which attends the cultivation of most root crops 
in drills, proceeds from the neglect of weeds in their early 
stages. Four or five days of delay frequently make the 
difference of fifteen days in the labour of making clean an 
acre of ground. The same weeds which a boy with a sharp 
shingle could remove at the commencement of one week, 
may, before the end of the next, require the application of 
an implement drawn by a horse. 

" I ascribe my success, in great measure, to the use of 
WoodPs extraordinary plough^ which enters the soil more 
deeply, and pulverizes it more perfectly, than any other I 
have ever seen, with equal force, in any country ; to the use 
of cultivators, which complete the production of fine tilth ; 
to the destruction of the weeds on their first appearance — 
leaving the smallest space upon which a horse can walk 
between the rows; and, above all, io planting the seeds of a 
proper kind upon a surface which is kept perfectly flat, 

General remarks. — Agriculturists have not agreed whether 
it is most expedient to plant the seeds of this root on ridges 
or on a level. Col. Powel condemns planting on ridges in 
this country, as a practice not adapted to our soil and cli- 
mate, in which vegetables are very liable to suffer by drought. 
He says, "Among the various practices, into which we have 
been seduced by the plausible theories of the advocates of 
European husbandry, there is none which appears to me 
more absurd than that which has led us to drill or dibble 
our crops on ridges. The English farmer wisely contends 
w^ith the evils produced by too much rain ; the American 
husbandman should as anxiously guard against his most for- 
midable enemy, drought. I am inclined to think that there 
is no crop cultivated in this state, (Pennsylvania,) which 
ought not to be put on a flat surface." The climate of 
New England, especially its northern part, is not so warm 



44 



and dry as that of Pennsylvania, and, in that part of the 
United States, perhaps the nature of the soil should decide 
the question, if dry, level planting, or if moist, ridge planting 
should be adopted." 

We have heard complaints from American farmers, that 
the seed of this root is slow and uncertain in coming up. 
i^erhaps the seed or soil, or both, may sometimes be too 
dry at the time of sowing. A writer in the English Far- 
fner^s Journal says, " I have of late years steeped my seed 
ibi at least forty-eight hours. I made an experiment with 
tsventy sound seeds not steeped, twenty steeped twenty-four 
hojjrs, and the same number steeped forty-eight hours; 
ev't^ry seed of the latter produced plants, which came up 
two or three days sooner than either of the others, and 
some of those not steeped did not come up at all." Mr. Cob- 
belt, in treating of the culture of the common garden beets, 
(American Gardener^ par. 198,) directs to soak the seed 
foQi days and nights in rain water before it is sowed ; and 
o])S(Tves, that the mangel wurtzel should be cultivated in 
the same manner as the other kinds of beets. American 
writers, so far as vre have observed, give no directions for 
soaking the seeds of this vegetable before planting; and it 
is possible that the omission of this part of the process may 
cause the slovv'ness and uncertainty of vegetation complained 
of. The capsule, or husk, which contains the seeds, is dry, 
and it requires a long time for the moisture, which it may 
derive from the earth, to penetrate this integument, so as 
to cause the seed to sprout. But if the soil be very moist 
at the. time of sowing, soaking the seed had better be omit- 
ted. 

Much has been written and said on the subject of strip- 
ping these plants of their leaves for feeding cows and other 
econc^mical purposes. An English writer observes, that 
six or seven crops of leaves and stocks may be taken oflf 
during the growth of the root ; women and children can 
take <)ff the leaves, which is done as follows : — They should 
place their hands on each side of the root, at the foot stalks 
of the leaves, leaving about six of the smallest central leaves 
betweim the fore-finger and thumb of each hand, (the small 
leaves are to be left on the root to grow, to make a fresh 
top;) then, spreading the hand flat with their face down- 
wards, push them both at the same time towards the ground. 



BEET. 



45 



and thus, by one motion, will the whole of the top of each 
root, except the small leaves to be left to form a fresh head^ 
be removed without unsettling the root or its fibres, whicl 
would check its growth. Some affirm, that stripping tht 
plant of its leaves is no injury to the root, and others are ot 
opinion that the root is injured by this means. We have 
doubts, whether, in field cultivation, it will often be deemea 
expedient to expend time and labour in this manner. The 
thinnings, or superfluous plants, however, should be pre 
served, as they make excellent food for milch cows or store 
swine. 

Some cultivators affirm, that it is never worth the trouble 
to transplant these roots to fill vacancies. " I have seen," 
says an English v^^riter, " maich labour and expense em- 
ployed in transplanting into vacant spots, when the seed 
has been dibbled thick enough, but have never seen the 
transplanted roots worth half the trouble; the tap root 
being broken in the drawing, nothing but the top, and use- 
less rough roots and fangs are produced. It has been re- 
marked by other writers, that the most common cause of 
failure in transplanting this root is the taking of them up 
when too small, before the plants have obtained strength 
and size sufficient to bear the operation of transplanting. 

Use, — The following remarks are from a paper commu- 
nicated to the trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural 
Society, by J. Lowell, Esq. president of said society. They 
are derived, principally, from a French publication, by the 
Abbe Rosier: — 

" This root is very little affected by changes of weather. 
It is attacked by no insect ; drought affects but little its 
vegetation. It prepares the land extremely well for other 
crops. It may be sown and treated precisely like the com- 
mon beet, except that it ought to stand eighteen inches 
asunder. 

" In good land, they often weigh nine or ten pounds, and 
are stripped eight or nine times. In a light, sandy, but well 
manured soil, they sometimes weigh fourteen and even six- 
teen pounds each ! 

" The first crop of leaves in France is taken off in the 
Ifttter end of June, or the beginning of July. In this coun- 
tr/^ probably, the latter period would be preferable. The 
lower leaves, those which incline towards the ground, are 



46 



BEET. 



those which are taken away, and care must be taken to pre- 
serve the top leaves, or the crown of the plants. The 
leaves may be taken off every fifteen days after the first 
gathering. Oxen, cows and sheep devour them greedily, 
and fatten readily upon them. All domestic poultry eat 
them readily, when chopped fine and mixed with grain. 
Horses will feed upon them very well, mixed with chopped 
straw. Hogs also fatten upon them. 

" Cows fed upon this root, solely, give a greater quan- 
tity of milk and cream, and of better quality for the first 
fifteen days, after which they grow too fat, and the milk 
lessens. The food of cows must therefore be varied. Oxen 
and sheep fatten very well upon thera. Cows should have 
grass in proportion of one third to the beet leaves, or every 
third day they should be turned to grass. In this mode 
their milk will be excellent. The trouble of gathering the 
leaves is less than that of gathering any other green fodder. 
It may be done by children, while men are required to cut 
other green food for cattle. It is the surest crop, since the 
plant will stand 'le largest droughts. The roots are gath- 
ered and treated xike iliose of the common beet. The skin 
is very tender, and care should be taken to handle them so 
as they may not be wounded, as they will, in that case, not 
keep so well. In order to preserve the seed in purity, care 
must be taken to change the ground in which the seed-beets 
are planted. The seed can be preser^'^ed, after it is gath- 
ered, three or four years, without injury. In giving these 
roots to cattle for food, they are first washed, and then cut 
up into pieces about the size of a nut. It is always best to 
accompany them, when given to horned cattle, with clover, 
or other hay or straw, and if the hay or straw has been 
previously cut fine, it will be preferable. If horses are fed 
wdth this root, with a proportion of hay or cut straw, (hall 
of each,) they will be fat, vigorous and healthy. If they 
are worked severely, a little oats or com may be added. It 
is thus they are treated in Germany, where this root stands 
in the stead of meadows or grass lands, and whose excel- 
lent horses are well known. 

" Hogs, fed upon them raw, after they have been cut up 
fine and mixed with milk or other drink, fatten as well upon 
them as upon boiled potatoes, by which the fuel and trowble 
Di boiling is saved. 



BEET* 



47 



"As to the quantity given to animals, much will depend 
on the proportion of other fodder, which you allow them. 
Cows fed twice a day in winter upon eighteen pounds of 
these roots at each time, together with four pounds of hay 
or chopped straw, will give as much and as good milk as 
in summer, and they will be kept in the best possible state." 

" Oxen fed with forty weight of these roots per day, with 
ten pounds of hay, for one month, and after that with fifty 
weight per day of the roots alone, ^vill be fat enough for sale 
in two months more. 

" Any person disposed may, from the facts above stated, 
calculate how many cattle will be supported by a single 
acre of land on which this plant is cultivated. 

" Men can eat this vegetable throughout the year ; it is 
ag^-eeable and healthy. No insect attacks it, and it suffers 
hue little from the variety of the seasons. The leaves of 
this plant form alone an excellent food for every species of 
domestic quadruped, during four months in the year. Tur- 
nips and other vegetables are, besides, liable to be destroyed 
by insects, whereas this beet is not. The roots can be pre- 
served eight months in a sound state, while turnips are of 
little value after March. In some soils turnips will not 
grow, particularly in those which are very stiff or strong. 
The root of scarcity grows every where. The milk of 
cows fed on turnips has a bad taste. That of those fed on 
this plant is excellent, as is also the butter made from it. 
This forage on green fodder comes also at the hot seasons, 
when almost all other green food is scarce, and sometimes 
not to be procured. Cattle never get tired of it. In many 
parts of Germany, where it is raised with success, they pre- 
fer it to every thing else to fatten those large herds of cattle 
which they annually export to France. In feeding cattle 
with beets, the same dry food must be given which is usu- 
ally given with turnips." 

Col. Powel observes, " My neat cattle prefer mangel 
wurtzel to any roots which I have offered to them. I 
have found its effects in producing large secretions of good 
milk very gi eat. I selected, in November, two heifers of 
the same breed, and very nearly of the same age, and in 
similar condition ; they were fed in adjoining stalls, and 
have been fed, regularly, three times a day, by the same 
man. One of them has had three pecks of mangel wurtzel, 



f8 



BEET. 



and four quarts of corn meal, daily ; the other, four and a 
half pecks of mangel wurtzel. The last, which has had 
mangel wurtzel alone, is in the condition of good beef ; the 
other is not more than what graziers call half fat. 

" The application of mangel wurtzel as food for sheep 
is not the least important of its uses. Ewes yean usually at 
the season when grass cannot be supplied. The health of 
themselves, and the thrift of their lambs, essentially depend 
upon succulent food being had. I am inclined to think, that 
no small portion of the success which English breeders have 
met, is to be ascribed to the large stores of roots, which 
they always have at command. It cannot be denied, that 
Indian meal will, of itself, in most cases, produce extraor- 
dinary fatness, as well as great size ; but I have been led 
to believe, that diseases are early engendered by this spe- 
cies of forcing, which is always expensive, and, too often, 
eventually destroys the animal which has been thus reared." 

A writer in the Farmer'^s Journal says, " This root is 
now generally allowed to stand eminent for the excellence 
of its fattening qualities. Among our field productions, 
parsnips and carrots may justly be declared more nutritious ; 
Swedish turnips, as holding divided empire with it ; while 
white turnips and cabbages sink into insignificance before 
it. The taste, both of the leaf and root, is most grateful 
to every description of stock : bullocks, sheep and hogs 
instinctively lay hold of them, and, when once accustomed 
to their flavour, they reject every other sort of green food, 
if they have the election. 

" No edible root has yet been brought into use, which 
has an affinity to the one under consideration, with respect 
to its imperishable properties. The white turnip is in 
March entirely divested of its fattening power ; the Swede 
in May becomes shrivelled, and is almost refused by cat- 
tle ; the potato, after this time, entirely sprouts away all 
its vigour, diminishes in bulk, and dries up ; but not so the 
mangel wurtzel. It is not only ready for use in the au- 
tumn, the winter, and spring, but may, if required, be 
continued with unabated advantage, and, in the following 
autumn, it will be found in full possession of its most 
valuable qualities, undiminished in weight, and abounding 
in saccharine juices." It has, however, been thought by 
cultivators in this country, that the ruta baga is more easily 



BEET. 



preserved, and will remain useful to a later period in the 
spring and summer after its growth, than the mangel wurt- 
zel. 

Messrs. T. and H. Little observe, as to the value of the 
roots for feeding stock, " there is a variety of opinions ; 
but, from a number of years' experience, we think them a 
valuable addition, and highly worth cultivating. Compar- 
ing them with English hay, — and we know of no better 
standard — in our opinion, three tons of mangel wurtzel, 
or potatoes, — of the two, we value the mangel wurtzel the 
highest, — are equal to one ton of hay, for feeding stock gen- 
erally ; but for milch cows, we think two tons of equal 
value ; for feeding store swine, mangel wurtzel is the 
only root, that we know of, which we can cultivate and 
feed to profit. Six bushels of raw mangel wurtzel we 
think equal to one bushel of Indian corn." 

Quantity to an acre, — The premium crop of the Messis* 
Little was 33 tons 10 cwt. and 14 lbs. on an acre. 
Col. Powel enclosed certificates to the president of the 
Penn. Agr. Society, showing that sixteen hundred and 
thirty-four bushels of mangel wurtzel, weighing seventy- 
eight thousand four hundred and forty-eight pounds, were 
produced upon one acre and fourteen perches ; and a part 
of the same field, containing thirteen contiguous rows, pro- 
duced at the rate of two thousand and sixty-five bushels 
per acre, weighing 44 tons, 5 cwt. and 27 lbs. In Great 
Britain, it is said that upwards of sixty tons have been 
raised on an acre. 

Gathering and preserving, — In gathering the roots, care 
should be taken to cut off the leaves about half an inch 
above the crown, as they will not keep so well, if cut more 
closely. Messrs. Tristram and Henry Little say, As to 
the best mode of preserving them, we have tried divers 
ways, — by pitting them, by putting them into a barn, and 
covering them with hay, and by putting them into the cel- 
lar; the last mode we think the best." Col. Powel observes, 
that one of his crops was " piled in a cellar, in rows, as 
wood, and covered with sand." A writer in the English 
Farmer"* s Journal observes, that he has practised, with 
success, the following mode of preserving this root : — I 
pack it in long heaps, about seven feet wide at the bottom. 
I begin by forming the outsides with the roots, not stripped 



§0 



of their tops ; tops outwards ; the internal parts to be filled 
with roots without leaves ; continue one layer over anoth- 
er, until the heap is about six feet high, and about two feet 
broad at top, which may be covered with straw and earth ; 
the ends of the heap should be covered in the same way ; 
the leaves form an efficient covering against rain and frost" 

Mr. M'Mahon's mode of preserving beets, and oilier 
roots, is as follows : — "Previous to the commencement. of 
severe frost, you should take up, with as little injury as possi- 
ble, the roots of your turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, salsify, 
scorzonera, Hamburg or large-rooted parsley, skirrets, Je- 
rusalem artichokes, turnip-rooted celery, and a sufficiency 
of horse-radish, for the winter consumption ; cut off their 
tops, and expose the roots for a few hours, till sufficiently 
dry. On the surface of a very dry spot of ground, in a 
well sheltered situation, lay a stratum of sand two inches 
thick, and on this a layer of roots of either sort, covering 
them with another layer of sand, (the drier the better,) and 
so continue layer about of sand and roots till all are laid 
in, giving the whole, on every side, a roof-like slope ; then 
cover this heap or ridge all over with about two inches of 
sand, over which lay a good coat of drawn straw, up and 
down, as if thatching a house, in order to carry off wet, 
and prevent its entering the roots ; then dig a wide trench 
round the heap, and cover the straw with the earth so dug 
up, to a depth sufficient to preserve the roots effectually 
from frost. An opening may be made on the south side of 
this heap, and completely covered with bundles of straw, 
so as to have access to the roots at all times, when wanted 
either for sale or use. 

" Some people lay straw, or hay, between the layers of 
roots, and immediately on the top of them ; this I do not 
approve of, as the straw or hay will become damp and 
mouldy, and very often occasion the roots to rot, while the 
sand would preserve them sweet and sound. 

" All these roots may be preserved in like manner in a 
cellar; but in such a place they are subject to vegetate and 
become stringy earlier in spring. The only advantage of 
this method is, that in the cellar they may be had when 
wanted, more conveniently during winter, than out of the 
field or garden heaps. 

^^Note. All the above roots will preserve better in sand 



BEfJE PLANT. BORECOLE. 



51 



than in common earth ; hut when the former cannot he 
had, the sandiest earth you can procure must be dispensed 
with." 

BENE PLANT. — Sesamum. — This was introduced into 
the Southern States by the negroes from Africa. It abounds 
in many parts of Africa. Sonnini and Brown, travellers in 
Egypt, say it is much cultivated there for the purpose of 
feeding horses, and for culinary purposes. The negroes in 
Georgia boil a handful of the seeds with their allowance of 
Indian corn. Probably no plant yields a larger proportion 
of oil, which Dr. Cooper of Philadelphia has pronounced 
equal to the finest oils. But it is worthy of cultivation in the 
Northern States, principally, as a medicinal plant. A gen- 
tleman in Virginia has given Messrs. Thorburn & Son the 
following account of its virtues : — " It requires to be sown 
early in April, at a distance of about one foot apart. A 
few leaves of the plant, when green, plunged a few times 
in a tumbler of water, make it like a thin jelly, without 
taste or colour, which children ajfflicted with the summer 
complaint will drink freely, and is said to be the best rem- 
edy ever discovered. It has been supposed, that (under 
Providence) the lives of three hundred children were saved 
by it last summer in Baltimore, and I know the efficacy of 
it by experience in my own family." This plant will throw 
out a greater profusion of leaves by breaking off the top 
when it is about half grown. — BusselVs Catalogue. 

BORECOLE. — Brassica oleracea. — The borecole con- 
tains several sub-varieties, the common characteristic of all 
which is an open head, sometimes large, of curled or wrin- 
kled leaves, and a peculiar, hardy constitution. There are 
fourteen varieties enumerated by Loudon. Those which 
he says are the most valuable, are the green borecole, 
Scotch kale, or Siberian borecole, the purple or brown kale, 
the German kaie, German greens, or curlies. 

Propagation, — All the sorts are propagated by seed ; and 
for a seed bed four feet by ten, Abercrombie says, one 
ounce of seed is necessary. M^Mahon directs to " sow 
towards the end of March [about three weeks later in 
New England] a first crop of borecole for autumn ser- 
vice," and observes — 

"There are two principal sorts, the green and the 
brown, both very hardy plants, with tall stems, and full heads 



BORER. BBOCCOLI. 



of thick fimbriate, curled leaves, not cabbaging, and are 
desirable open greens for winter, &c. Let this seed be sown 
in an open exposure, distant from trees, and from close 
fences, as, in such situations, they are apt to draw up too 
fast, with long, weak stalks ; sow it broad-cast, and rake it 
in." Several crops may be sown in several successive 
months, from the middle of April to the middle of Septem- 
ber. In dry weather, water the plants occasionally, both 
before and after they are up. " When about three inches 
high, it will be proper to thin the seed bed, and prick out a 
quantity therefrom, at four inches distance, that the whole 
may obtain proper strength for final transplanting. 

" When the plants are set in the places, where they are 
to complete their growth, they should be planted out like 
cabbages, at three feet distance every way, and afterwards 
be kept free from weeds, and the earth drawn to their 
stems as they advance in growth. Those intended for win- 
ter use should not be planted in a rich, fat loam, as there 
they would become too succulent, and consequently could 
not bear the frost as well as if growing on a gravelly soil. 
Such as are designed for autumn use, may be planted in 
any convenient bed that is tolerably rich. 

" The green and brown curled borecole, being very hardy, 
will require little protection [against the cold of winter]. 
In November they may be taken up, and planted in a ridge 
tolerably close together, and, during severe frost, be covered 
lightly with straw ; this will preserve them sufficiently : 
and during winter the heads may be taken off" as they are 
wanted for use ; the stems, if taken up and planted in rows, 
as early in March as the weather will admit, will produce 
abundance of the most delicious sprouts. 

" In the Southern States, and even in warm soils and ex- 
posures in the Middle States, borecole will stand the winter 
in open beds, without any covering whatever." — WMahon. 

Ust, — The crown or centre of the plant is cut off, so as 
to include the leaves which do not exceed nine inches in 
length. It boils well, and is most tender, sweet and deli- 
cate, provided it has been duly exposed to frost. — Loudon, 

BORER. — Saperda bivitata. — An insect that injures ap- 
ple-trees, &c. — See Insects. 

BROCCOLI. — Brassica oleracea. — There are several 
varieties of broccoli, which are all merely late-heading va- 



rieties of the cauliflower. Miller mentions the white and 
purple broccoli, as imported into England from Italy ; and 
it is thought that from these two sorts all the subsequent 
kinds have arisen, either by accidental or premeditated 
impregnations. The kinds introduced into this country are, 
the early white, early purple, and large cape. 

The seeds of broccoli should be sown in New England 
about the latter end of May, or beginning of June ; and 
wlien the young plants have germinated eight leaves, they 
should be transplanted into beds. By this management, 
towards the latter end of July, they will be fit to be planted 
out in some well sheltered piece of ground, at the distance 
of a foot and a half in the rows, and two feet between 
each row. 

The soil proper for broccoli is rather light than heavy. 
M'Mahon says, the early purple broccoli, if sown early in 
April, and planted out as you do cabbage, in good rich 
ground, will produce fine heads in October or November, 
very little inferior to cauliflowers, and, by many, preferred 
to them : the white will not flower so early, and, in the 
Middle and Eastern States, must be taken up in November, 
and managed as directed in that month, [see ^'preserving 
cabb jes^^^ &c. under the article Cabbage, in the following 
pages,] by which a supply of this very delicious vegetable 
may be had, in great perfection, during all the winter 
and spring. 

" In such of the Southern States, as their winters are not 
more severe than in England, they will stand in the open 
ground, and continue to produce their fine flowers, from 
October to April. In the Middle, and especially the East- 
ern States, if the seeds are sown early in March on a hot- 
bed, and forwarded as is done with cauliflowers and early 
cabbage plants, and planted out finally in April, it would 
be the most certain method of obtaining large and early 
flowers." 

Insects and diseases, — " In old gardens, infested, as is of- 
ten the case, with an insect which in summer insinuates 
itself into the roots of all the brassica tribe, and causes the 
disease called the club^ trenching the ground deep enough 
to bring up four or six inches of undisturbed loam or earth, 
will probably bury the insects too deep for mischief, and 
provide fresh ground for the benefit of the plants. In gar* 
5 * 



BROCCOLI. 



dens much exhausted hy reiterated croppings, if this mode 
cannot be adopted, a good quantity of fresh loam from a 
common field, dug in, would materially improve the broc- 
coli, and be of lasting use in future crops. Broccoli, in 
general, succeeds best in a fresh, loamy soil, where it comes, 
I think, more true in kind, and is hardier without dung ; 
but if this situation cannot be had, deep digging, with plen- 
ty of manure, is the only remaining alternative to produce 
good crops* I believe soap ashes, dug into the ground in 
considerable quantities, to be a good preservative from the 
club ; and if the roots of the plants, just previously to 
planting, are dipped and stirred well about in mud of soap 
ashes with water, its adherence will, in a great measure, pre- 
serve them from attack ; perhaps a mixture of stronger 
ingredients, such as soot, sulphur, tobacco, &c. would be 
still better." — Hort, Trans, vol. iii. — See Cabbage. 

Wood, a writer in the Caledonian Horticultural Memoirs^ 
says, he has paid a considerable degree of attention to the 
culture of broccoli, and has made considerable progress 
therein. He found that manuring with a compound of 
sea-weed and horse-dung produced the largest and finest 
heads he had seen for many years. 

Culture without transplanting, — " M'Leod grows cape 
broccoli, in a very superior manner, without transplanting. 
In the end of May, after having prepared the ground, he 
treads it firm, and, by the assistance of a line, sows his 
seed in rows two feet apart, dropping three or four seeds 
into holes two feet distant from each other in the row. 
When the seeds vegetate, he destroys all except the strong- 
est, which are protected from the fly by sprinkling a little 
soot over the ground ; as the plants advance, they are fre- 
quently flat hoed until they bear their flowers ; they are 
once earthed up, during their growth. A specimen of 
broccoli, thus grown, was exhibited to the Horticultural 
Society ; the head was compact and handsome, measuring 
two feet and nine inches in circumference, and weighing, 
when divested of its leaves and stalks, three pounds ; the 
largest of its leaves was upwards of two feet long. M'Le- 
od adopts the same mode in the cultivation of spring-sown 
cauliflowers, lettuces, and almost all other vegetables, avoid- 
ing transplanting as much as possible." — Hort, Trans, vol 
iv. p. 559. 



BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 



55 



To save seed, — ^Wood, already mentioned, selects the 
largest, best formed, and finest heads, taking particular 
care that no foliage appears on the surface of the heads : 
these he marks, and, in April, lays them by the heels in a 
compound of cleanings of old ditches, tree leaves, and 
dun J. When the head begins to open or expand, he cuts 
out the centre, leaving only four or five of the outside 
shoots to come to seed. Lifting, [taking up,] he says, pre- 
vents them from producing proud seed, as it is called, or 
degenerating. — Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 267. Aber- 
crombie says, broccoli seeds degenerate in this country, 
[England,] and that the best seed is obtained from Italy. 
— Loudon, The common directions are, in substance, as 
follow : 

Reserve a few of the largest heads of the first crop, 
stripping constantly off all under shoots, leaving only the 
main stem to flower and seed, and tie them to strong stakes, 
to prevent their being broken by winds and heavy rain. 
Care should be taken, that no other sort of cabbage is suf- 
fered to go to seed near them. 

Use, — The same as the Cauliflower, which see in its 
alphabetical order. 

BRUSSELvS SPROUTS.— Emmca oleracea,— The 
Brussels sprouts produce an elongated stem, often four feet 
high, from which sprout out shoots, which form small 
green heads, like cabbages in miniature, each being from 
one to two inches in diameter, and the whole ranged spi- 
rally along the stem, the main leaves of which drop off 
early. The top of the plant resembles that of a Savoy, 
planted late in the season ; it is small, and with a green 
heart of little value. Van Mons says, (Hort. Trans, vol. 
iii.) " If this vegetable be compared with any other, which 
occupies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well in 
situations generally considered unfavourable, such as between 
rows of potatoes, scarlet runners, or among young trees, it 
must be esteemed superior in utility to most others." Ni- 
col considered it deserving a more general culture in Scot- 
land. 

Use. — The sprouts are used as winter greens ; and at 
Brussels they are sometimes served at table, v/ith a sauce 
composed of vinegar, butter and nutmeg, poured upon them 
hot, after they have been boiled. The top, Van Mons 



5fi 



BUGKTHORNi 



says, is very delicate when dressed, and quite different m 
flavour from the sprouts. 

Culture. — The plants are raised from seed, of which an 
ounce may be requisite for a seed bed, four feet by ten feet. 
Van Mons,in the paper already referred to, says, " The seed 
is sown in the spring, under a frame, so as to bring the 
plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open 
border with a good aspect." By thus beginning early and 
sowing successively till late in the season, he says, " we 
contrive to supply ourselves in Belgium with this delicious 
vegetable full ten months in the year ; that is, from the end 
of July to the end of May." The plants need not be placed 
at more than eighteen inches each way, as the head does 
not spread wide, and the side leaves drop off. In this, as 
in every other respect, the culture is the same as that of 
the borecole. 

Gathering the crop, — Morgan says, the sprouts must have 
some frost before gathered ; but this Van Mons assures us 
is an erroneous opinion. In Belgium, the small cabbages 
are not esteemed if more than half an inch in diameter. It 
is usual to cut off the top about ten or fifteen days before 
gathering from the stem. In spring, when the sprouts are 
disposed to run to flower, their growth is checked by taking 
up the plants, and setting them in the ground in any shaded 
spot. 

To save seed. — Van Mons says, it is usual to save seeds 
indiscriminately from plants which have and those which 
have not been topped ; but that he intends to save from the 
tops only, hoping thereby to improve the progeny. What- 
ever mode be adopted, the grand object is to place the 
plants where they will be in no danger of receiving the fa- 
rina of anv other of the brassica tribes. — Loudon, 

BUCKTHORN.— i?^amni*5.— There are many plants of 
this genus ; but we shall take notice of but one species, 
principally on account of its use in forming hedges. The 
kind used for that purpose is the rhamnus catharticus^ or 
purging buckthorn. It is common in a wild state in Eng- 
land and other parts of Europe, as well as in the United 
States. Gen. E. H. Derby, of Salem, Mass. has cultivated 
this plant, and is, we believe, the first person who applied 
it to the very important use of forming hedges ; for which 
purpose it is said to be much preferable either to the haw- 



BUCKTHORN. 



57 



thorn or crab, principally on account of its being entirely- 
free from the horer^ (an insect which frequently destroys 
the hawthorn,) as well as all other annoyances of a similar 
nature. A letter from Mr. Derby to the editor of the 
iV. Farmer^ published in that paper, vol. iii. p. 214, con- 
tains the following notices of this shrub : — 

" You will perceive that Miller represents it as a shrub 
growing about 12 or 14 feet high. The tree from which my 
plants were raised, formerly stood in the garden of the ven- 
erable Dr. Holyoke of this place, who used the berries for 
medicinal purposes, and was as large as any of our common 
apple-trees. He assures me he was induced at last to cut 
it down, as it shaded so much of his garden. I was so 
pleased with the healthy and clean appearance of the tree, 
and the next spring observing several young plants in the 
adjoining garden belonging to my brother, raised from seed 
dropped in the autumn, that I was induced to transplant 
them to a nursery, where they grew with great rapidity. 

" After trying several kinds of trees, for the purpose of 
making a hedge, without much success, I was induced to 
try this, which has afforded a most beautiful fence, so much 
so as to attract the attention of every person who has seen 
it. It divides my garden, is about three hundred feet in 
length, the plants set nearly a foot apart, is five feet high, 
and two feet wide at top, which is cut nearly level. It 
shoots early in the spring, makes a handsome appearance, 
and continues its verdure till very late in the fall. It has 
not so much spine as either the English or American haw- 
thorn, but I think sufficient to protect it from cattle. The 
plant bears the knife or shears remarkably, and makes as 
close and tight a fence as either of the others, and is not 
subject to blight, as both of them have been with me. You 
will observe that Miller speaks of it as not so proper for 
hedges as the hawthorn or crab, which may be the case in 
England, but I cannot agree with him as it respects Amer- 
ica. 

" The tree furnishes a large quantity of seed,which rapidly 
vegetates ; and I make no doubt it can be propagated by 
cuttings, which mode I shall adopt in the spring." 

Propagation and culture, — " The purging buckthorn shrub 
is so common in the hedges of many parts of England, that 
\i sddom cultivated in gardens. It rises easily from 



BtrCKTHORN 



seeds, if they are sowti in autumn soon after the berries are 
ripe ; but if they be left out of the ground till spring, the 
plants will not come up till the year after. These will re- 
quire no particular treatment, but may be managed in the 
same w^ay as young crabs, or any other hardy, deciduous 
tree or shrub. It may also be propagated by cuttings or 
layers. If the young shoots be layed in autumn, they will 
put out roots by the following autumn, when they may be 
taken off, and either planted in a nursery, to get strength 
for a year or two, or where they are desired to remain." — 
Miller. 

Uses. — There are other uses to which this shrub may be 
applied besides that of forming hedges. Goats, sheep, and 
horses eat the leaves, but cows refuse them. The wood is 
said to be valuable for the turner. " From the juice of the 
unripe berries, with alum, a yellow, and from the ripe ones 
a fine green is obtained ; the bark also strikes a yellow and 
brown red colour. The juice of the unripe berries is of 
the colour of saffron, and is used in staining maps or paper ; 
that of the ripe berries is the sap green of miniature paint- 
ers, and is much esteemed ; but if they are gathered late in 
autumn, the juice is purple." — Dom. Ency. 

A syrup prepared from buckthorn berries has been used 
•in medicine, but is not often prescribed, as it occasions 
much sickness and griping. In a Latin treatise, published 
by Dr. J. Gr. Kolb, of Erlang, in Germany, the bark of the 
buckthorn is much recommended as a mild, cheap, and effi- 
cacious remedy, in every respect preferable to the berries. 

Budding, — See Inoculation, in the alphabetical order. 

CABBAGE TRIBE. The cabbage tribe is of all the 
classes of cultivated culinary vegetables the most ancient, 
as well as the most extensive. The hrassica oleracea^ being 
extremely liable to sport or run into varieties and monstrosi- 
ties, has, in the course of time, become the parent of a nume- 
rous race of culinary productions, so very various in their hab- 
it and appearance, that to many it may appear not a little ex- 
travagant to refer them to the same origin. Besides the 
different sorts of white and red cabbage and Savoys, which 
form the leaves into a head, there are various sorts of 
borecoles^ which grow with their leaves loose in the natu- 
ral way, and there are several kinds of cauliflower and broc- 
coli, which form their stalks or flower-buds into a head. 



All of these, with the turnip-rooted cabbage and the Brus* 
sels sprouts, claim a common origin from the single species 
of brassica above mentioned. Cabbage of some sort, 
White, in his History of Selborne, informs us, must have 
been known to the Saxons ; for they named the month of 
February Sprout kale. Being a favourite with the Ro- 
mans, it is probable that the Italian cabbage would be in- 
troduced at an early period into South Britain. To the 
inhabitants of the north of Scotland, cabbages were firs^ 
made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell, 
when quartered at Inverness, — Edin, Encv, art. Horticul* 

TURE. 

CABBAGE. — Brassica oleracea capitata. — Among the 
varieties of the cabbage, which have been introduced into 
this country, the following are enumerated in Mr. Russell's 
Catalogue : 



Early Salisbury dwarf, 

Early York, 

Early Dutch, 

Early sugarloaf. 

Early London Battersea, 

Lai ee Bergen, or great American; 

Early emperor. 

Early Wellington, 

Russian, 

Large late drumhead, 
Late imperial, 



Late sugarloaf, 
Large green glazed, 
Tree, or thousand-headed, 
Large Scotch,/or cattle. 
Green globe Savoy, 
Red Duichy for pickling J 
Large cape Savoy, 

Yellow Savoy, [ground) 
Turnip-rooted, or Arabian, (above 
Turnip-rooted, (below ground) 
Chou de Milan. 



Soil and situation, — Every variety of cabbage grows best 
in a strong, rich, substantial soil, inclining rather to clay 
than sand ; but will grow in any soil, if it be well worked, 
and abundantly manured with well rotted dung. But, ac- 
cording to Loudon, " The soil for seedlings should be light, 
and, excepting for early sowings, not rich. Where market 
gardeners raise great quantities of seedling cabbages to 
stand the winter, and to be sold for transplanting in the 
spring, they choose, in general, the poorest and stiffest land 
they have got, more especially in Scotland, where large 
autumnal sowings, of winter drumhead and round Scotch, 
are annually made, and where the stiffness of the soil gives 
a peculiar firmness of texture and hardiness of constitution 
to the plants, and prevents their being thrown out of the 
soil during the thaws which succeed a frosty winter. 
Transplanted cabbages require a rich mould, rather clayey 
than sandy ; and, as Neill and Nicol observe, it can scarcely 



CABBAGE. 



be too much manured, as they are an exhausting crop. 
Autumnal plantations, intended to stand the winter, should 
have a dry soil, well dug and manured, and of a favourable 
aspect. The cabbage, whether in the seed-bed or final 
plantation, ever requires an open situation. Under the drip 
of trees, or in the shade, seedlings are drawn up weak, and 
grown crops are meager, w^orm-eaten and ill-favoured. 

Sowing cabbage seed, — M Mahon says, " The proper pe- 
riod for sowing cabbage in the Middle States, to produce 
early summer cabbages, is between the sixth and the tenth 
of September, if intended to be transplanted into frames in 
October, for winter protection, which is the preferable 
method ; but if they are designed for remaining in the seed- 
beds till spring, the period is between the fifteenth and 
twentieth. However, it will be very proper to make two 
or three sowings within that time, as it is impossible to say 
whether the fall may be favourable or otherwise, and, there- 
fore, the better way is to be prepared in either case by suc- 
cessive crops. 

" The consequence of having crops too early is, that they 
are subject to run to seed in the spring soon after being 
planted out ; and if the seeds are sown too late, the plants 
do not acquire sufficient strength before winter to withstand 
its rigour, without extraordinary care. But in either case 
there is a remedy ; that is, if the plants are likely to become 
too luxuriant and strong, transplant them once or twice in 
October, and if too backward and weakly, make a slight 
hot-bed towards the latter end of that month, and prick 
them out of the seed-bed thereon ; this will forward them 
considerably." 

Mr. M'Mahon thinks that, in the Eastern States, the 
fore part of September will be a suitable time to sow cab- 
bages intended to be grown the succeeding summer. The 
seeds should be covered about a quarter of an inch deep, 
and, if the weather prove dry, should be watered occasion- 
ally in the evening till they come up. According to Aber- 
crombie's seed estimate, ^' for a seed-bed to raise the early 
York and similar varieties, four feet wide by twenty in 
length," two ounces will be required ; for a seed-bed to 
raise the large sugarloaf, and other luxuriant growers, four 
feet by thirty-six in length, two ounces. The same writer 
directs to sow at three dilFerent seasons, that is, spring, 



CABBAGE. 



61 



summer and autumn, and cover from an eighth to a quarter 
of an inch. Under a deficiency of winter standing young 
plants for final transplanting in spring, or in order to have 
some spring sown plants as forward as possible, a moderate 
portion of some best early sorts may be sown between the 
middle of February and the middle of March, in a slight 
hot-bed or frame, to nurture the plants till the leaves are an 
inch or two in length. Then prick them into intermediate 
beds in the open garden, there to gain strength for final 
transplanting." 

Planting in New England, — " Some drop the seeds where 
the cabbages are to grow. By this they escape being stint- 
ed by transplanting ; for winter cabbages, the latter part 
of May is early enough to put the seed into the ground, 
whether the plants are to be removed or not. I have tried 
both ways, and, on the whole, I prefer transplanting. They 
are otherwise apt to be too tall, and to have crooked stems. 
Covering plants with leaves is not a good practice. They 
will be much heated through some sorts of leaves, the free 
circulation of air about them will be prevented, and their 
perspiration partly obstructed. If a hot sun cause them to 
droop, a shingle, stuck into the ground, will be sufficient 
shelter, if it be on the south side of the plants. I com- 
monly allow each plant two shingles, one on the south-east 
side, and one on the south-west, meeting at the south cor- 
ner." — Deane. 

The act of planting should be performed carefully. 
Holes, of sufficient depth and width, should be dibbled, foi 
the smaller sorts of cabbages, at the distance of two feet 
and a half, and, for the larger sort, of three feet every way. 
In these the earth should be placed up to the lower leaves, 
and the earth brought closely about the roots, which is 
best done by pushing down the dibbler, at a small angle 
with the plant, and then bringing it up to it with a jerk. 
This leaves no chambering, (as gardeners call it,) no va- 
cancy between the plant and the soil. 

" The state of the weather, when these operations are 
performed, is not a matter of indifference, and has been a 
subject of controversy ; some recommending dry weather, 
others wet. As in many other cases of disputation, the 
truth lies between them — that is, moist weather is neither 
dry nor wet, and is precisely that which is best for setting 
6 



62 



CABBAGE. 



out cabbages, or any other vegetable. We ought not, 
however, to v/ait long for even this most favourable state 
of the atmosphere, since, vvith a little labour, we have the 
means of making up for its absence.'' — Armstrong. 

" Dig the plants up, that is, loosen the ground under 
them with a spade, to prevent their being stripped too much 
of their roots. The setting stick should be the upper part 
of a spade or shovel handle. The eye of the spade is the 
handle of the stick. From the bottom of the eye, to the 
point of the stick, should be about nine inches in length. 
The stick should not be tapering^ but nearly of equal thick- 
ness all the way down to within an inch and a half of the 
point, vvhere it must be tapered olF to the point. If the 
wood be cut away, all round, to the thickness of a dollar, 
and iron put round in its stead, it makes a very complete 
tool. The iron becomes bright, and the earth does not 
adhere to it as it does to wood. Having the plant in one 
hand, and the stick in the other, make a hole suitable to 
the root that it is to receive. Put in the root in stich a 
v/ay, that the earth, when pressed in, will be on a level 
with the but-ends of the lower or outv»^ara leaves of the 
plant. Let the plant be rather higher than lower than this ; 
for care must be taken not to put the plant so low as for 
the earth to fall, or be washed into the heart of the plant, 
nor even into the inside of the bottom leaves. The stem 
of a cabbage, and the stems '-)t all the cabbage k^'nd, send 
out roots from all the parts of them that are put beneath 
the surface of the ground. It is good, therefore, to plant 
as deep as you can v/itliout injury to the leaves. The next 
consideration is, the fastening of the plant in the groimd. 
The hole is made deeper than the length of the root, but 
the root should not be bent, at llic point, if it can be avoid- 
ed. Then, while one hand holds the plant, with its root 
in the hole, the other hand applies the setting stick to the 
earth on one side of the hole, the stick being held in such 
a v/ay as to form a sharp triangle with the plant. Then, 
pushing the stick down, so that its pc-int go a little deeper 
than the point of the rooij and giving it a little twisty it presses 
the earth against the point, or bottom of the root. And 
thus all is safe, end the nlant is sure to grow.'' — Cohhett. 

Ajter-cidturc. — Little more is necessary than to stir the 
ground pretty frequently, and keep it clear of weeds. It 



CABBAGE. 



63 



is recommended to lioe tlie ground while the dew is on, 
once a week, till they begin to head. 

Diseases and insects. — Cabbages are liable to a disease in 
the roots, in which they become swelled and knobby, and 
the plants of weak and imperfect growih. This disorder is 
called stump footj fumble foct^ &c. It has been supposed to 
be caused by the attacks of grubs, below the surface of the 
ground; and the disorder is said to be chiefly prevalent where 
the same sorts of cabbages have been raised on the same 
ground several years in succession. Lovet Peters, Esq. 
of VVestborough, Mass., say?, the cause of the stump foot, 
is in the soil: — Few pieces of land, I believe, that have 
been, for several successive years under the plough, will 
produce a good crop of ^ ^ ' ,es, though there may be 
exceptions. My methccl _ .sing them, vv^hich I have 
practised several years with complete success, is the 
following : — In the spring, take a piece of green sward, 
of a good soil, and free from stones, and turn it over with 
the plough as flat as possible ; then spread on a large quan- 
tity of good manure : if it has been previously mJxed vdth 
leached ashes, the better. Then harrovv^ greatly, and early 
in June : if for winter cabbage, cut holes through the turf, 
w^th a hoe, as near together as the cabbages ought to grow ; 
fill the holes v>dth fine earth and manure, and then set the 
plants, or put in a small number of seeds : I prefer the 
latter, however,^ since it saves the labour of setting, and 



* Cultivators do not agree on the subject of transplanting cabbage plants, or 
sowing the seeds in the spots where the plants are to grow. Dr. Deane, as has 
appeared above, after having tried both methods, gave the preferei:ce to 
transplanting. 3ir. Peters, we have seen, prefers the other mode. Mr. Eord- 
ley relates an experiment, in v/hich he compa-'^ed cabbages transplanted with 
others not once moved. The uninovetl grew, and vv'ere belier than the moved." 
Mr. Cobbett sdLWS, to hB.\Q f iie cabbages Cif any sort, they must be (fzf/ce trans- 
planted. First^ they should be taken from lbs seed-bed, (where they have been 
sown in beds near to each other,) and put into fresh dug, well-broken ground, 
at six inches apart, every v.-a}^ This is called pHcJdng out. By standing 
here about fifteen or twenty days, they get straight, and stand strong, erect, 
and have a straight and stout stem. Out of this plantation they come alL 
of a size; die roots of all are in the same state, and they strike quicker into 
the ground Vv^here they stand for a crop." According to Rees^ Cijcloyedia, 
it was the practice of the celebrated BakewelL and other cultivators who 
followed his example, to drill cabbage seed where the plants were to re- 
main. Perhaps there vvould be no necessity for transplanting cabbages, 
in order to make the stems straight and stout,'' according to Mr. Cobbett's 
directions, if the plants v/ere not originally sown too thick, or were proper- 
ly thuniei.i at an earl}^ period of their gro'Alh. An English witer. says, 

Much injury frequently arises to young cabbage plantS; from 'the seed being 



64 



CABBAGE. 



is much surer of success, if it happens to be a time of 
drought. They will need no more hoeing than is necessa- 
ry to keep down the weeds. In this way, I have raised 
cabbages of the largest size, in a green sw^ard potato field, 
without more hoeing than was necessary for the potatoes." 

Cabbage plants are liable to be attacked, by a grub or black 
worm, in the night, which eats off the stalks, just above 
ground, and buries itself in the ground as soon as the sun 
rises. Dr. Deane observed, that a little circle of lime or rock- 
weed round the plant, will preserve it, and recommends dig- 
ging for the w^orm near the place which shows the marks of 
its ravages, and destroying it. Scalding the hills with boiling 
water, and then enclosing them with boards, barks, or shin- 
gles, would be an effectual, but troublesome mode, of 
guarding against worms. The Economical Journal of France 
gives the following method, which, it states, is infallible, to 
guard not only against caterpillars, but all other insects 
which infest cabbages or other vegetables : — Sow with 
hemp all the boi lers cf the ground where the cabbage is 
planted ; and, allhough the neighbourhood be infested with 
caterpillars, the place enclosed with hemp will be perfect- 
ly free, and not one of the vermin v/ill approach it. Wa- 
tering the plants with water which had been poured boiling 
hot on elder leaves, or walnut leaves, and suffered to stand 
till cool, has been recommended. The following mixture 
is also said to be a preservative against all kinds of insects : — 
Take a pound and three quarters of soap, the same quanti- 
ty of flowers of sulphur, two pounds of puff balls, and fif- 
teen gallons of water. When the whole has been well 
mixed, by the aid of a gentle heat, sprinkle the insects 
with the liquor, and it will instantly kill them. To get rid 
of the aphides or cabbage lice, watering the plants with 
soap-suds, or a solution of salt in water, (not too strong, 
lest it kill the plants,) is said to be efficient. 

Use, — The culinary uses of the cabbage are too well 
known to need description or recapitulation. If they grow 
near a yard where cattle are kept, the under leaves, when 
they begin to decay, may be stripped off and given them. 

sown too thick j care should^ therefore, be taken, to have them properly thinned 
out, whenever they come up in too thick a manner. Probably, if the plants 
were sown in the hills in which they are intended to grow for a crop, and thin- 
ned out in due season, they would grow as straight aiKi i^out^ os if they bad 
been several times tranRplginte«i>" 



CABBAGE, 



63 



The plants will not be injured, and they are an excellent food 
for cattle, and will much increase the milk of cows. But 
tl ^ least decayed alone should be given to cows, lest they 
give the milk a bad taste. Much account is made of cab- 
bages, in England, for feeding cattle in the winter ; but 
the difficulty of preserving them renders them less valua- 
ble for that purpose with us. Cabbages are also eaten by 
swine and horses, and are thought to be excellent food for 
ewes that have newly dropped their lambs, and for calves. 

Preserving cabbages, — Mr. M'Mahon recommends the 
foiiowing method for preserving cabbages for winter and 
spring use : — " Immediately previous to the setting in of 
hard frost, take up your cabbages and Savoys, observing to 
do it in a dry day ; turn their tops downward, and let them 
remain so for a few hours, to drain off any water that may 
be lodged between their leaves ; then make choice of a 
ridge of dry earth, in a well-sheltered, warm exposure, and 
plant them down to their heads therein, close to one anoth- 
er, having previously taken off some of their loose, hanging 
leaves. Immediately erect over them a low, temporary 
shed, of any kind that will keep them perfectly free from 
wet, which is to be open at both ends, to admit a current 
of air in mild, dry weather. These ends are to be closed 
with straw when the weather is very severe. Ii? ^his situa- 
tion, your cabbages will keep in a high state of preservation 
till spring ; for, being kept perfectly free from wet, as well 
as from the action of the sun, the frost will have little or 
no effect upon them. In such a place the heads may be 
cut otf as wanted, and if frozen, soak them in spring, well, 
or pump water, for a few hours previous to their being 
cooked, which will dissolve the frost, and extract any disa- 
greeable taste occasioned thereby." 

The principal gardener in the Shaker establishment, in 
New Lebanon, Columbia county, N. Y. directs not to pull 
up cabbages in autumn, till there is danger of their freez- 
ing too fast in the ground to be got up. If there happens 
an early snow, it will not injure them. When they are 
removed from the garden, they should be set out again in 
a trench dug in the bottom of a cellar. If the cellar is 
pretty cool, it will be the better." 

The London Monthly Magazine gives the following meth- 
od, by which cabbages may be preserved on board ships, 
6 * 



66 



CABBAGE. 



&c. — " The cabbage is cut so as to leave about two inches 
or more of the stem attached to it ; after which the pith is 
scooped out to about the depth of an inch, care being taken 
not to wound or bruise the rind by this operation. The 
cabbages then are suspended by means of a cord, tied round 
that portion of the stem next the cabbage, and fastened at 
regular intervals to a rope across the deck. That portion 
of the stem from which the pith is taken, being uppermost, 
is regularly filled with water." 

To save cabbage seed, — " The raising of the seed of the 
different sorts of cabbage, Neill observes, affords employ- 
ment to many persons in various parts ojf England. It is 
well known that no plants are more liable to be spoiled by 
cross breeds, than the cabbage tribe, unless the plants of 
any particular variety, when in flower, be kept at a very 
considerable distance from any other ; also in flower, 
bees are extremely apt to carry the pollen of the one to the 
other, and produce confusion in the progeny. Market gar- 
deners, and many private individuals, raise seed for their 
ov, n use. Some of the handsomest cabbages of the differ- 
ent sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk in the ground to 
the head ; early next summer a flower-stem appears, which 
is followed by abundance of seed. A few of the soundest 
and healthiest cabbage-stalks, furnished with sprouts, an- 
swer the same end. When the seed has been well ripened 
and dried, it will keep for six or eight years. It is mention- 
ed by Bastien, that the seed-growers of Aubervilliers have 
learned by experience, that seed gathered from the middle 
flower-stem produces plants, which will be fit for use a 
fortnight earlier than those from the seed of the lateral 
flower stem ; this may deserve the attention of the watch- 
ful gardener, and assist him in regulating his successive 
crops of the same kind of cabbage." — Loudon, 

Field culture, — The variety cultivated in the fields for cat- 
tle is almost exclusively the large Scotch, or field cabbage. 
The land is prepared the same way as for other hoed crops. 
" The preparation given to the plants," says Loudon, " con- 
sists in pinching off the extremity of their tap-root, and 
any tubercles vfhich appear on the root or stem, and in im- 
mersing the root and stem in a puddle or mixture of earth 
and water, to protect the fibres and pores of the roots and 
stem from drought. The plants may then be inserted by 



€ANKER-WOKM. CARAWAY.-^CARDOON. 



67 



the dibber, taking care not to plant too deep, and to press 
the earth firmly to the lower extremity of the root. If this 
last point is not attended to, the plants will either die, or, if 
kept alive by the moisture of the soil, or rain, their progress 
will be very slow. When the distance between the ridg- 
iets [or rows] is twenty-seven inches, the plants are set about 
two feet asunder in the rows, and the quantity required for 
an acre is about 6000 plants." The after-culture, preser- 
vation, uses, &c., have been sufficiently detailed in the pre- 
ceding pages, under this head. 

CANKER-WORM.— Insects. 

CARAWAY. — Carum carui. — The caraway is a bien- 
nial plant, a native of England, being occasionally found in 
meadows and pastures. It rises a foot and a half high, with 
spreading branches ; the leaves are decompound ; the leaf- 
lets in sixes ; it produces umbels of white flowers in June. 

Use, — The plant is cultivated chiefly for the seed, which 
is used in confectionary and in medicine. In spring, the 
under leaves are sometimes put in soups ; and in former 
- times the fusiform roots were eaten as parsnips, to which 
Parkinson gives them the preference. In Essex, large 
quantities of the seed are annually raised for distillation with 
spirituous liquors. 

" Culture, — It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an 
ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet by five. Sow 
annually, in autumn, soon after the seed is ripe : the seed- 
lings will rise quickly, and should be thinned to a foot's dis- 
tance each way. In default of sowing in autumn, sow in 
March or April, either in drills or broad-cast ; but the plants, 
so raised, will not in general flower till the following year. 
When the seed is ripe, the plant is generally pulled up in 
gathering, especially in field culture." — Loudon, 

GARDOON.— 0/7iam cardunculus. — The cardoon is a 
hardy, perennial plant, a native of Candia, introduced into 
England in 1658. It is a species of artichoke, and grows 
wild in the south of France. 

Propagation, — " Though a perennial, it often dies in the 
winter, and therefore requires to be raised from seed almost 
every year ; and, for a bed four feet wide by eight feet, two 
ounces are sufficient. Formerly the plants were raised on hot- 
beds, and transplanted in May and June, but now the seed is 
generally sown where the plants are to remain." — Loudon. 



68 



CARROT. 



Use, — " The parts of the cardoon that are eaten are not 
those belonging immediately to the flower, as of the arti- 
choke, but the roots, stalks, and middle ribs of the leaves* 
and chiefly the latter, which are thick and crisp. But as 
all these are naturally bitter, the plants are blanched by being 
tied up like lettuces, about the month of September, and 
having earth thrown upon their lower parts to the depth of 
eighteen inches or two feet. Cardoons come into season 
about the end of November ; and are either eaten alone, or 
as a sauce to animal food, particularly roast meat ; or are 
introduced as a dish in the second course." — Loudon, 

CxiRROT. — Daucus, — This plant is said to be a native 
of Great Britain, where it is still found growing wild. There 
are many varieties of the carrot; and the following are 
the finest sorts enumerated in Mr. Russell's Catalogue : 

Altrinffham, (a superior sort,) Lemon, 
Early horn, Long- orange, 

Cremer, (fine for the table,) Blood red. 

Soih — " The carrot requires a light, mellow soil, mixed 
with sand, and should be dug or trenched one or two spades 
deep, breaking well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a 
porous bed, and an even surface. The orange and red 
sorts, on account of their longer roots, require a soil pro- 
portionably deeper than the horn." 

Seed estimate and sowing. — The seeds have numerous 
forked hairs on their borders, by wdiich they adhere together, 
and therefore should, previously to sov/ing, be rubbed be- 
tween the hands, and mixed with dry sand, in order to sepa- 
rate them as much as possible. They are also very light, 
and therefore a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and 
the seeds should be disseminated equally, and trodden in 
before raking. Previously to sowing, if convenient, the 
seed should be proven, by sowing a few in a pot, and placing 
it in a hot-bed or hot-house, as it is more frequently bad 
than most seeds. For a bed 4^ feet by 30, one ounce w411 
be requisite, and the same for 150 feet of drill row. Dr. 
Deane advises to sow carrots in drills from 9 to 12 inches 
apart, across beds 4 feet wide. M'Mahon directs to sow 
thin in drills, distant from each other from 8 to 10 inches, 
and to thin them to 3 inches, plant from plant, in the rows. 

To save seed, — Plant some largest, best roots early in the 
spring, tv/o feet apart ; insert them a few inches over the 



i 



CARROT. 



69 



crowns. They will yield ripe seed in autumn, of which 
gather only from the principal umbel, which is likely not 
only to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigo- 
rous plants. 

Field culture, — ^' The only sort of carrot adapted to field 
culture," says Loudon, " is the long red, or field carrot 
New seed is most essential, as it will not vegetate the sec- 
ond year. The best soil for the carrot is a deep, rich, 
sandy loam ; such a soil ought to be at least a foot deep, 
and all equally good from top to bottom. On any other 
the field culture of the carrot will not answer. 

" The usual preparation of the seed for sowing is the 
mixing it with earth or sand, to cause it to separate more 
freely ; but Burro v/s adds water, turns over the mixture 
of seeds and moist earth several times, and thus brings it 
to the point of vegetating before he sows it. Having 
weighed the quantity of seed to be sown, and collected 
sand or fine mould, in the proportion of about two bushels 
to an acre, I mix the seed with the sand or mould, eight or 
ten pounds to every two bushels, and this is done about a 
fortnight or three weeks before the time I intend sowing ; 
taking care to have the heaps turned over every day, sprin- 
kling the outside of them with water each time of turning 
over, that every part of the sand heaps may be equally moist, 
and that vegetation may take place alike throughout. I 
have great advantage in preparing the seed so long before 
hand ; it is by this means in a state of forward vegetation, 
therefore lies but a short time in the ground, and, by quickly 
appearing above ground, is more able to contend with those 
numerous tribes of weeds in the soil, whose seeds are of 
quicker vegetation." 

The quantity of seed, when carrots are sown in rows, is 
two pounds per acre; and, for broad-cast sowing, five 
pounds. The rows for the larger or proper field carrots, 
should be from 14 to 16 or 18 inches apart ; and the carrots 
thinned, in hoeing, to 3 or 4 inches apart in the rows. The 
seeds will do best when sown by hand, as their shape does 
not well admit of their being sown by machines. Loudon 
says, " It has been advised, by an intelligent cultivator, to 
deposit the seed to the depth of one inch in the rows, leav- 
ing the spaces of fourteen inches between them as intervals ; 
iha seed, in these cases, being previously steeped in rain 



70 



CARROT, 



water for twenty-four hours, and left to sprout, after which 
it is mixed with saw-dust and dry mould, in the proportion 
of one peck and a half of each to a pound of seed. The 
land is afterwards lightly harrowed over once in a place. 
Two pounds of seed, in this mode, is found, as has been 
observed, sufficient for an acre of land." 

AJter-ciilture. — The first hoeing of carrots must be by 
hand — an operation vrhich requires a great xieal of attention, 
as it is difficult to distinguish and separate the weeds from 
the young carrots. Loudon says, " From eight to fifteen 
or eighteen inches, each way, is the common distance at 
which they are allowed to stand ; and it has been proved, 
from many yea.rs' experience in districts where they are 
most cultivated, that carrots which grow at such distances 
always prove a more abundant crop than when the plants 
are allowed to stand closer together." Deane observed, 
" It is not amiss if they grow large and rank, when they 
are chiefly designed as food for cattle, though small-sized 
ones are preferred for the table." 

Mr. Quincy gives the following statement of the mode 
of cultivating carrots, made use of by Samuel Wyllys Pome- 
roy, Esq., and which he prefers to all others : — 

" Plough as deep in the fail or spring as the state of the 
land will permit. Cross-plough in the spring, and harrow 
level. Put on fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five buck-loads 
of the most rotten compost xo the acre, as the heart of the 
land may be. Spread and harrow it fine. Then, with a 
horse-plough, strike it into two-bout ridges, as near together 
as four back furrows vvili make them, and if the two first 
back furrows are narrow, the other two being deep, the 
ridge will be nearly to a point, and should be eighteen or 
twenty inches from the bottom of the furrow, if it be well 
cleared out. To do which, make another bout in the fur- 
row, if necessary. Then, with the head of a rake, strike oiF 
the crown of the ridge, till it is three or four inches wide, 
and with it, or a hoe, open a drill in the usual manner. Sow 
the seed pretty thick, cover and press down a v» ith a 

hoe or shovel. When the weeds appear, run a small 
plough through the furrows. Hand- weed the crop, and hoe 
the weeds from the sides of the ridge. The orange carrot 
is best." 

"In hai vesting, a plough with one yoke of oxen should 



CARROr. 



71 



be run near the side of the range of carrots, and as deep as 
possible. This loosens the dirt, and clears one side of the 
carrots almost entirely from the earth. The labourers then, 
with great facility, take them by their tops out of the beds, 
and throw them into carts, with only an occasional use of 
the hoe to plants which the plough has not loosened. 

" I have no question that, conducted in this mode, a car- 
rot crop may be made more productive, and much less ex- 
pensive, than the potato crop usually iso In sovvdng, I use 
a small hand-drill, which lays the seed v/ith great regularity — 
a circumstance very important both to facilitate weeding and 
harvesting; since, if the carrots stand straggling, and not in 
a line, the plough, when harvesting, leaves the more to be 
loosened by the hoe or the fork." — Massachusetts Agricultural 
Repository^ vol. iv. p. 24. 

A mode of cultivating carrots, differing slightly from the 
above, is described by Mr. Quincy, in the same work, vol. 
iv. p. 212. 

For other modes of cultivating this root, see Mass. Agr. 
Rep, vol. V. pp. 20, 255, 347. 

Use. — " Horses are remarkably fond of carrots, and it is 
even said, that, when oats and carrots are given together, 
the horses leave the oats, and eat the carrots. The ordinary 
allowance is about forty or fifty pounds a day to each horse. 
Carrots, v/heti mixed with chaff, that is, cut straw, and a 
little hay, without corn, keep horses in excellent condition 
for performing all khids of ordinary labour. 

" In comparing the carrot with the potato, an additional 
circumstance greatly in favour of the former is, that it does 
not require to be steamed or boiled, and it is not more dif- 
ficult to wash than the potato. These and other circum- 
stances considered, it appears to be the most valuable of all 
roots for working horses. 

The use of the carrot in domestic economy is well 
known. Their produce of nutritive matter, as ascertained 
by Sir H. Davy, is ninety-eight parts in one thousand; of 
whicli three are starch, and ninety-five sugar. They are 
used in the dairy in winter and spring to give colour and 
flavour to butter. In the distillery, owing to the great pro- 
portion of sugar in their composition, they yield more spirit 
than the potato ; the usual quantity is twelve gallons per 



72 



CATERPILLAR. CAULIFLOWER. 



ton. They are excellent in soups, stews, and haricots, and 
boiled whole with salt beef. 

" The diseases of carrots are only such as are common 
to most plants, such as mildew, insects, &c. The mildew 
and worms at the root frequently injure crops, and are to be 
guarded against, as far as practicable, by a proper choice, 
soil, season of sowing, and after-culture." — Loudon. 

CATERPILLAR — an insect on fruit trees. — See In- 
sects. 

CAULIFLOWER. — Brassica oleracea. var. botrytis. — 
The cauliflower is one of the most delicate and curious of 
the whole of the brassica tribe ; the flower buds forming a 
close, firm cluster or head, white and delicate, for the sake 
of which the plant is cultivated. 

Varieties. — Earlv; {for the firsts early crops.) — Later, or large, (for principal 
crops.) 

Propagation and soil, — The cauliflower is raised from 
seed, of which half an ounce is suflicient for a seed-bed four 
feet and a half wide, by ten in length. The soil for the seed- 
bed may be light, but, for final transplanting, it can hardly 
be too rich, the cauliflower, like the vine, being reputed a 
* rough feeder.' Cleanings of streets, sesspools, &c., ought, 
therefore, to be liberally supplied during the growth of the 
plants, when very large heads are desired. 

" Times of sowing. — The early and main superior crop, 
brought to fruit by the longest nursery attendance ; the late 
summer succession crop, raised by the shortest course ; and 
the Michaelmas (29th of Sept.^) crop, obtained at the least 
expense, are sown, respectively, at three difl'erent seasons. 
The principal sowing is made about the end of the third 
week in August, or a day or two before or after the 21st, to 
raise plants to stand over winter, under frames, hand-glasses, 
or half-sheltered warm borders, for the early and main supe- 
rior crops next summer. A secondary sowing in February or 
March, for succession, and late inferior crops the same year 
in summer and autumn. A final sowing, near the close of 
May, for ordinary crops, to yield fruit the following autumn 
and winter. The seedlings, protected with glass frames, 
generally grow too gross in the stems, which become partly 
blackened, and the plants, being thus unhealthy, are not fit 
for planting out. Late-raised seedlings, which spend the 
winter in the open border, uniformly become the large and 



CAULIFLOWER. 



73 



finest table cauliflowers during the summer, though they 
certainly do not come in quite so early. Cauliflower plants, 
it is probable., are often killed with too much attention. 
Seedlings, raised late in autumn, seem to be very tenacious 
of me.^'—Cded. HorL Mem. iii. i92« " A method of pro- 
ducing cauliflowers, pretty early, and with great certainty, 
is this :— The plants are set in small pots in the winter 
season, and kept in any convenient part of the floor of a 
^^'inery or other glazed house. In the beginning of March, 
they are taken out of the pots with the b&U <)f ^arth attach- 
ed, and planted in the open ground. If they be here pro- 
tected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they 
come into head in the course of April, if the weather 
prove favourable." — Neill^ in Edin, Encyc, 

Drummoiid, of the Cork botanic garden, protects cauli- 
flower plants during winter by planting them in exca- 
vations made in the common soil of the garden, and covered 
with frames thatched with long, straight wheat straw. He 
uncovers constantly, in mild weather, whether nights or 
days. — Hort, Trans, v. 369, 

For after-culture, preservation through winter, saving 
^eed, &c. proceed as with the common white cabbage. 

Ute. — " Among the succulent plants produced in our 
climate, this doubtless is one of the most nourishing, and 
likewise the best adapted to tender organs of digestion, 
especially in valetudinarians and invalids : such persons, 
however, ought to eat it with the addition of some aromatic 
spice, such as pounded cardamoma, or caraway, or a small 
proportion of bread. To make the cauliflower blanch 
handsomely, the gardeners tie over the heads of the plant 

" To prepare cauliflowers, — Let the cauliflowers first be 
parboiled ; next they must be immersed in coid, hard water, 
for some time, till they be nearly wanted for the table; thus, 
on being boiled for a few minutes, they will become more 
firm and crisp than if cooked in the usual manner." — Dojn. 
Encyc, 

Neill (in Edinburgh Encyc.) observes, "These heads or 
flowers being boiled, generally wrapped in a clean linen 
cloth, are served up as a most delicate vegetable dish. 
Cauliflower is a particular favourite in this country. ^ Of 
all the flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson used to say, 
' I like the cauliflower.' For the early supply of the 
London market, very great quantities of cauliflower are 
fostered under hand-glasses during winter and the first part 
7 



74 



CELERY. 



of spring ; afid to behold some acres overspread with such 
glasses, gives the stranger a forcible idea of the riches and 
luxury of the metropolis/^ 

CELERY. — Apium graveolens, — Celery is a hardy bien- 
nial planty a native of Great Britain, and, when in its wild 
statCy it is denominated smallage. The root, in its wild 
state, is thick and fibrous. The stalk is bushy and furrow- 
ed, and attains the height of two or three feet. The leaves 
are wedge-shaped, and the flowers yellow, which are pro- 
duced in August. The varieties usually cultivated are, the 

White solid; | Italian, and 

Rose-coloured solid^ [ Celerrac, or tumip^ooted. 

Propagation, — ^All the sorts are raised from seed ; and 
half an ounce is reckoned sufficient for a seed-bed four feet 
and a half wide by ten feet in length, of the upright sorts ; 
but for celeriac, a quarter of an ounce will be enough for a 
bed four feet square. 

Soil, — Celery delights in a soil rather moist, rich in ve- 
getable mould, but not rank from new, unrotted dung. 

Times of sowing, — " The most forward crop is slightly 
forced ; any of the varieties may be sown in the spring, in 
the open garden, at two or three different times, from the 
21st of March till the first week in May ; but the principal 
sowing should be made in the first fortnight in April. Sow 
in beds of light mellow earth, and rake in the seed lightly 
and regularly. In very dry weather, give moderate water- 
ing both before and after the plants come up. When they 
are two, three, or four inches high, thin the seed-bed, and 
prick out a quantity, at successive times, into intermediate 
beds, three or four inches asunder. Water those removed 
until they have struck" [taken root,'] — Loudon, 

Transplanting into trenches. — When either the plants 
left in the seed-bed, or those removed, are from six to 
twelve inches high, or when the latter have acquired a 
stocky growth, by four or five weeks' nurture in the inter- 
mediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. 
For this purpose, allot an open compartment. Mark out 
the trenches a foot wide, and from three to three and a 
lialf distance ; dig out each trench lengthwise, ten or tv/elve 
inches in width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight 
inches. Lay the earth dug out equally on each side of the 
trench ; put about three inches of very rotten dung into 
the trench, then pare the sides, and dig the dung and par- 
ings with an inch or two of the loose mould at the bottom. 



CELERY. 



75 



Trim tlie tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in 
single rows along the middle of each trench, allowing four 
or fiv^e inches distance from plant to plant When this 
work is iinished, give the plants water in plenty, and occa- 
sionally water them from time to time, if the weather he 
dry, and likewise kt them be shaded, till they strike root, 
and begin to grow. When they have grown to the height 
of eight or ten inches, draw earth to each side of them, 
breaking it fine. This should be done in dry weather, be- 
ing careful not to bury the hearts. Repeat the earthing 
once in ten days, till the plants are fit for use. Be careful, 
however, not to draw up too much earth to the plants at 
first, lest they be smothered, and leave the plants in a 
little hoilovv^, that they may receive the full benefit of the 
waterings, rain, &c." 

Taking the crop. — It is best to begin at one end of a row, 
and dig clean down to the roots, whieh then loosen with a 
spade, and they may be drawn up entire, without breaking 
the stalks. 

To preserve this plant during the winter, on the ap- 
proach of frost, take up a part of the crop, and lay it under 
sand for winter use. Those left in the beds may be cover- 
ed with litter, to be removed in mild weather. Cobbett 
directs, to preserve celery in beds, as follows : — " Two 
boards, a foot v/ide each^ their edges on one side laid upon 
the earth of the ridge, formed into a roof over the point of 
the ridge, the upper edge of one board going an ineh over 
the upper edge of the other, and the boards fastened well 
with pegs, will do the business completely ; for it is not the 
frost, but the occasional tkaivsj that you have to fear^ and 
the wet and rot that they produce.'^ 

To save seed, — Either leave some established plants in 
the spring where growing, or in March, as soon as the frost 
will permit, set the plants in the ground, full two feet asun- 
der. 

Cultivation of celeriac. — The times of sowing are the 
same as for the other sorts. In the beginning or middle of 
June, they are transplanted into a flat bed in the open air, 
at the distance of fifteen inches from each other, and not 
in trenches, like other celery. They must be abundant- 
ly watered as soon as they are set out, and the watering 
must be repeated every other day, of, if the weather should 
be warm, every day. As they increase in size, they will 
require a greater quantity of water^ and they must be occa- 



76 



CHAMOMILE. 



sionally hoed. The roots will be lit for use in Soptembe! 
or October. Sabine states, that lie has been informed tlmt 
the plan of giving excess of water is peculiar to this plaiUj 
and that its vigorous growth is more dependent on richness 
of soil than any other cause. Abercombie directs to earth 
up the bulbs four or five inches, after they are full grown^ 
in order to blanch them. 

" Use. — The blanched leafed-s talks are used raw, as a sal- 
ad, from August till March ; they are also stewed, and put 
in soups. In Italy, the unblanched leaves are used for 
soups, and when neither the blanched nor the green leaves 
can be had, the seeds bruised form a good substitute. The 
root only of the variety called the celeriac is used, and Sabine 
informs us (Hort, Trmis, vol. iii.) ' it is excellent in soupsj 
in which, whether white or brown, slices of it are used as 
ingredients, and readily impart their flavour. With the Ger- 
mans, it is also a common salad, for which the roots are 
prepared by boiling, until a fork will pass easily through 
them : after they are boiled, and become cold, they are 
eaten with oil and vinegar. They are also sometimes serv- 
ed up at table, stewed with rich sauces. In all cases, before 
they are boiled, the coat and the fibres of the roots, v/hich 
are very strong, are cut away ; and the root is put in cold 
water, on the fire, not in water previously boiling,' " — 
Loudon, 

QHkMOMILE.—Anthemh nobilis. 
Varieties. — These are the common single and double- 
flowered. 

Soil and culture. — This herb delights fn a poor, sandy 
soil. " Both kinds are propagated by parting the roots, or 
by slips of the rooted offsets or of the runners. Detach 
them with roots in little tufty sets in March , April or May, 
and plant them from eight to twelve inches asunder, giving 
water. The flowers should be gathered in their prime, in 
June or July, just when full-blown. Let them be spread 
to dry in a shady place * then put them into paper bags^ 
and house them for me."^ — Ahercrombie. 

" Use. — It is cultivated on account of the flower, which is 
a safe bitter and stomachic, and much used under the name 
of chamomile-tea. The double-flowering variety, though 
more feeautifu! than the single-flowered, is less useful ; the 
aromatic principle not residing in the floscules of the ray. 
the multiplication of which constitutes the double flower. 
The double sortj however^ is most cultivated by growers 



CHERRY-TREE. 



77 



for tli€ market, on account of its greater bulk and weight. 

— -Loudon. 

CHERRY-TREE. — Prunus ctrasus. — The cherry is a 
genus of plants, which comprises too many species to be 
described in this place. Loudon's catalogue contains thir- 
ty-six kinds, but does not include ail that are cultivated in 
England ; and there are several varieties in the United 
States, which are natives of the country. See Tkacher^s 
Orchardisi^ Coxe on Fruit-TreeSj and Domestic Encyclopedia, 
Gen. Dearborn's communication for N. E, Farmer^ vol. v. 
p. 210. 

" The cherry-tree Is propagated by seeds and by suckers, 
when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone, when new varie- 
ties are required ;^ by scions, when you have to work on 
old subjects ; and by buds, when your trees are young. If 
intended for dwarfs, bud your plants at twOj and if for 
standards, at four years of age. The spring succeeding 
this operation is the time for transplanting ; which should 
be done carefully, and in the manner prescribed for setting 
out apple-trees. The fashion or form of the trees will 
direct the distance at which they are to stand from each 
other ; between standards this should not be less than thirty 
feet ;| and between pyramids and espaliers, not less than 
twenty. 

" Though in our climate all the varieties of the cherry- 
tree do v/ell as standards and pyramids, and are therefore 
generally and properly cultivated in these forms, still it 
may be useful to remark, that two of them, the May duke 
and the Morello, when trained against walls, give fruit not 
only of increased precocity, but of much finer flavour ; a 
circumstance in which they differ, not only from all other 
varieties of their own races, but from fruit-trees of all other 
kinds. 

"As the cherry grows on small spurs, pushing from the 
sides and ends of two, three, and four years old wood, and 
as the procession of new buds is constant, it follows as a 
general rule, that 'the knife must be sparingly employed;' 
and as a particular one in relation to wall-trees, that 'bear- 
ing branches are not to be shortened, if room can be found 
for extending them.' These rules, however rigorously 



* The seeds employed should be taken from ripe fruit, committed promptly 
to a bed of saiicl, and kept in a dry and cool place till the spring; when uiey 
may be set out in rows two and a half feet apart. 

+ Miller thinks the distance should be forty feet. 



78 



executed, must not prevent summer pruning, ( wliicb con&ists 
in rubbing off redundant or iii-placed buds,) nor that of 
winter^ if confined to tbe renewal of fractured and unsound 
wood, or branches too much multiplied^ or crossing each 
other* The nature of the Moreilo will, however, render 
it an exception to the general practice here recommended ; 
for, instead of bearing like the other varieties, on two, three^ 
and even four years old wood, its fruit is generally produ- 
ced on shoots of the last year, and rarely, if ever, on evei^ 
two years old wood. Whence it follows, that, with regard 
to this variety, our aiflij in both summer and winter pruning, 
ought to be 'a removal cf old, and a provision of new 
bearers.' 

" In renovating an old tree, pursue Forsyth's method — 
shorten it to a stump not more than eighteen inches high; 
remove the old soil from the roots ; replace it vvith that of 
upland pasture^ on a layer of stone or other impervious 
body, two feet below the surface ; and encourage a single 
shoot. ' ' — Armstrong, 

Use. — " It is a refreshing summer fruit, highly grateful 
at the dessert, and affording pies, tarts, and other useful and 
elegant preparations in cookery and confection ar}'. Steep- 
ing cherries in brandy qualifies and improves its strength 
and flavour ; a fine w^ine is made from the juice, and a 
spirit distilled from the fermented pulp. The gum v. hich 
exudes from the tree is equal to gum arabic ; and Hasel- 
quist relates, that more than two hundred men, during a 
siege, were kept alive for nearly two months, without any 
other sustenance than a little of the gam taken sometimes 
into the mouth, and suffered gradually to dissolve. Cherrjr 
wood is hard and tough, and is used by the turner, fiute- 
maker and cabinet-maker." — Loudon. 

" The common wild or native cherry, {Prunus ccrasus 
Virginia^) though it bears only a small, bitter cherry, vvhich 
serves as food for birds, is valuable on -account of its medi- 
cinal bark, and also for its timber, which is of a reddish, 
streaked colour, resembling mahogany, and capable of 
receiving a fine polish ; it is used by turners and cabinet- 
makers for many purposes. The tree grov/s to a large size. 

" Cherry brandy is made in the following manner: — Fill 
the cask with an equal proportion of Moreilo and sweet 
black cherries; pour over them as much brandy as the 
cask will contain. When it has been on ten days, draw it 
od', and pour on hot water ; let this remain some time, sha- 



CHERVIL.— ^CHIVE.—CGLEV/ORT.— CORIANDER. 79 

king the cask frequently, then draw it off, mixing the last 
with the first liquor." — Domestic Encyclopedia. 

Dr. Cooper adds, in the last edition — " It is best made 
with the small wild black cherry." Cattle, it is said, have 
been killed by eating leaves of the wild cherry-tree. For 
a method of making cherry wine, see N, E, Farmer^ ii. 27. 

CHERVIL. — Cheer ophyUim, — This is an annual plant, 
with leaves resembling those of double parsley. It is used 
for salads and in soups, and is sown occasionally in rows, 
like parsley, from April to September. 

CHIVE. — Allium scJmnoprasam. — The cJiive^ or cive^ is 
a hardy perennial plant, a native of Britain, and found in 
meadows and pastures, though bat rarely. The leaves rise 
from many small bulbous roots connected in bunches ; are 
awl-shaped, thread-like, and produced in tufts. The ilo v/ers 
are white, tinged v/ith reddish-purple, and appear on round 
stalks in June."- — Loudon, It is of common and eas}^ cul- 
tivation. 

COLE WORT. — Brassica oleracea mridis—^' The origi- 
nal variety of cabbage, called colewort," says Loudon, is^ 
or seems to be, lost, and is nov/ succeeded by what are 
called cabbage-coleworts. These, Abercrombie observes, 
are valuable family plants, useful in three stages ; as young 
open greens, as greens v/ith closing hearts, and as greens 
forming a cabbage growth." The culture and uses of the 
cabbage-colewort are so similar to those of the common 
white cabbage, that details on the subject would seem un - 
necessary. 

It is said in Gleanings on Hashandry^ &c. that cole- 
wort is " a name given by gardeners to a cabbage plant, to 
be cut for use from the time the leaves are as broad as a 
man's hand, till it begins to form a close head. They are 
generally raised from seeds of any of the best kinds of 
heading white cabbage ; but those of the sugar-loaf are 
preferable to all others for eating." 

CORIANDER. — CGnandmin sathnim. — -Coriander is a 
h^irdy annual plant, which originated in the East. 

Cidture. — -This plant delights in a sandy loam. It m 
raised from seeds, which may be sown in March, or as socn 
as the frost will permit, when the v/eather is mild and dry. 
The quantity of seed requisite for a bed six feet long and 
four feet wide, sown in rows nine inches apart, is half an 
ounce. The seed should be buried half an inch. 

Use, — The seeds have a pleasant flavour, and, when en- 



80 



CRESS, WATER. 



crusted with sugar, are sold by the confectioners under the 
name of coriander comfits. They are also used in the bitter 
infusions and preparations of senna, the disagreeable taste 
of which they completely overcome, and for various other 
purposes, both by druggists and distillers. 

CRESS, WATER. — Sisymhrium nasturtium. — A genus of 
plants, of which the principal is the common water-cress, 
found in springs and brooks. It is perennial, and produces 
white flowers that are in bloom in June or July. Lasteyrie 
tells us, that, in Germany, great pains are taken to propagate 
the water-cress, and gives the following account of their 
mode ofdoingit: The water,'' says he, " most favourable for 
its production, is that in which it grows naturally, and which 
in winter preserves heat enough to prevent it from freezing. 
The situation on which to form a cress plantation ought to 
have a little slope or inclination, because water in a state 
of repose, alters the flavour of the plant. Having chosen 
the place, it is formed into heights and hollows alternately . 
the latter are destined for the cresses, and the former for the 
culture of other plants. The size of the hollows is made to 
depend on the quantity of water you can bring into them, 
and the demand for the article to be raised. If the soil of 
the hollows is not sufficiently rich, better earth must be 
brought to amend it, and if the bottom be marshy, you 
throw over it some inches of sand. Your next step is to 
cover it with water for some hours, after which you drain 
and sow or plant. At the end of a few days, you let in the 
water, and drain as before, and continue these processes un- 
til the cresses appear, if sown, or until they have taken root, 
if planted. The quantity of water let in is always to be 
regulated by the growth of the plant ; for, though it cannot 
live but in water, it will not bear to be long covered with it. 
Planting is always surer than sowing, and is therefore pre- 
ferred. The epoch for this is either March or August. The 
distance between the plants should not be less than ten or 
fifteen inches. Moving tKe earth about their roots with the 
hoe, from time to time, is useful ; but for the rest, (having 
once taken root,) no farther care is necessary. A cress 
plantation is in full bearing the second year, and lasts a 
long time. When it begins to fail, it may be renewed by 
taking off a foot of the surface soil of the old beds and 
replacing it with good and fresh earth. In winter, the beds 
are covered more deeply vAth water, which protects the 
plant against the frost," 



CRESS, GARDEN. 



81 



The same writer informs us how they manage their cress 
plantations near Paris. " Having there," he says, " no run- 
ning water, they cultivate it in the neighbourhood of wells, 
and water it every day. The cress vegetates promptly, but 
becomes acrid in its taste. They accordingly prefer sow- 
ing to planting, because, if cut when only six inches high, 
and treated, in all respects, as an annual, it has least of this 
pungency. " — Armstrong'^ s Treatise, 

Loudon says, " Some market gardeners, who can com- 
mand a small stream of water, grow the water-cress in beds 
sunk about a foot in a retentive soil, with a very gentle slope 
from one end to the other. Along the bottom of this bed, 
which may be of any convenient breadth and length, chalk 
or gravel is deposited, and the plants are inserted about six 
inches' distance every way. Then, according to the slope 
and length of the bed, dams are made six inches high across 
it, at intervals; so that, when these dams are full, the v/ater 
may rise not less than three inches on all the plants included 
in each. The water being turned on will circulate from 
dam to dam ; and the plants, if not allowed to run to ilower, 
will afford abundance of young tops in all but the v/intei 
months. A stream of water, no larger than what vv ill fill 
a pipe of one inch bore, will, if not absorbed by the soil 
suffice to irrigate in this way an eighth of an acrt. Ab 
some of the plants are apt to rot off in winter, the plantation 
should be laid dry two or three times a year, and all weeds 
and decayed parts removed, and vacancies filled up. 
Cress grown in this way, however, is far inferior to that 
grown in a living stream flowing over gravel or chalk." 

Use. — " Water-cresses are universally used and eaten as 
an early and wholesome spring salad. Being an excellent 
antiscorbutic and stomachic, they are nearly allied to scurvy 
grass, but do not possess so great a degree of acrimony. 
They are also supposed to purify the blood and humours, 
and to open visceral obstructions." — Dom, Encyc, 

CRESS, GARDEN. — Lepidium sativum, — The garden- 
cress is a hardy, annual plant, cultivated, says Loudon, since 
1548; but its native country is unknown. 

Varieties, — 

Curled, or peppergrass, | Broad-leaved garden cress. 

This plant is raised from seed, of which one ounce will 
suffice for a bed of four feet square. 

Times of sowing^ and site of the crop, — Cress should be 
raised three or four times every month, as it may be in de- 



CUCUMBER. 



mand, to have young crops constantly in succession. Allot 
some warm situation for early spring sowing ; and, if the 
weather be cold, either put on a spare frame, or cover with 
matting between sunset and sunrise. For autumnal sow- 
ings, when cold vveather is approaching, allot some warm 
borders, and give occasional protection. " The cress," 
Says Loudon, " is often raised on porous earthen w^are ves- 
sels, of a conical form, having small gutters on the sides for 
retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids^ are some- 
what ornamental in winter, and afford repeated gatherings." 

Process in sowing^ and subsequent culture, — " Having 
allotted a line, mellow soil, to receive the seed, dig the sur- 
face, and rake it finally, preparatory to sowing, which mostly 
perform in small, flat, shallow drills, four, five, or six inches 
asunder. Sow the seed very thickly, and earth over very 
lightly, or but just thinly cover. Give occasional waterings 
in warm, dry seasons." 

Taking the crop. — " To gather cress in perfection, cut 
thern while moderately young, either clean to the root, or 
cmly the tops of advanced plants. They will shoot again 
for future gathering, but the leaves will be hotter, and not 
so mild and tender as those of younger plants." 

To sate seed, — ^'Either sow a portion in the spring for 
that purpose, or leave some rows of any overgrown old crop 
in April or May. The plants will yield seed in autumn." 

CUCUMBER. — 'Cucmnis sativa—Amoikg the varieties of 
tills species of plants, are, 

Early Green clusler. Long prickly, 

Early frame, White spined. 

Long green Turkey, Shoi-t prickly, 

Long white Turkey, Small gu^kin, or West India. 

Soil. — In our climate, cucumbers will grow in any soil, 
though not witli the same degree of vigour, provided they 
be supplied with a sufficiency of heat, light, water, and air. 
It is an object with many market gardeners and others, to 
produce cucumbers at an early period, and for this purpose 
artificial heat is necessary. For early forcing, Abercrombie 
recommends a mould or compost, of the follov/ing materials : 
" one third of rich top spit earth, from an upland pasture, 
one half of vegetable mould, and one sixth of well decom- 
posed horse-dung, with a small quantity of sand. 

Time of beginning to force, — Abercrombie says, Mana- 
gers, who have to provide against demands for early cucum- 
bers, must raise seedlings from twelve to ten weeks before 



CUCUMBER. 



83 



the iruit will be required, according to the* length of the 
days in the interval. In proportion as the entire course 
embraces a greater part of mid-winter, the liability of failure 
from obstacles in the weather will be greater. The last 
fortnight in January, or first week of February, is a good 
time for beginning to force the most early crop. In the 
subsequent months, both main and secondary crops may be 
started as required, and will come forward more freely. 
To have a constant succession, seedlings should be origi- 
nated twice a month. As the course of forcing more coin- 
cides with the natural growing season, the length of it will 
be reduced to eight, seven, or six weeks." Nicol recom- 
mends the middle of January. He says, " Some begin 
sooner, but it is striving hard against the stream to little 
purpose. If the dung be prepared, and the bed be got 
ready, so as to sow about the 1st of February, the success 
will be often greater than by sowing a month earlier." Be- 
sides, cucumbers, produced altogether by the heat of dung, 
without the aid of the sun, are less wholesome and palatable 
than those which Nature affords in the due course of her 
operations. 

Sorts, — Abercrombie recommends " the short prickly for 
very early fruit, and the long prickly kinds for the chief 
early and main summer crops." MThail prefers ^' the green 
cucumber with black prickles, as best for forcing. When 
fit for table, it runs from six to nine inches long, and, when 
ripe, runs to about eighteen or twenty inches long." 

Choice of seeds, — " It is advisable," Abercrombie ob- 
serves, " to have seed from two, at least, to four years old, 
in preference to nev/er seed, which is apt to run luxuriantly 
in vine, and the plants from it do not show fruit so soon 
nor so abundantly as those from seed of a greater age. But 
when seed has been kept more than four years, it is some- 
times found to be too much weakened." Mr. Armstrong 
says, A debate has long existed, on the preference to be 
given to old or liew seeds, and which, like many others, 
appears to be interminable. The Abbe Rozier and his 
followers think that the most vigorous plants of all species 
and kinds are the best, and, accordingly, prefer new seeds, 
because more likely to produce such than old ones : while, 
on the other hand, their opponents maintain, that plants 
may have too much vigour, as well as too little ; and that, 
whenever an excess of vigour exists, according to all vege- 
table analogy, it shows itself in the production of stems and 



84 



CUCUMBER. 



leaves, not in tliat of flowers and fruits — whence they con- 
clude, that old cucumber seeds, (like those of all the rest 
of the cucurbitacecB family,) are better than new, because 
less vigorous. The best practical use to be made of this 
controversy, is to sow old seeds in the spring, when vege- 
tation is most powerful, and new ones in Julyj when it 
begins to abate." 

Forcing cucumbers. — Towards the latter end of January, 
a quantity of fresh horse-dung should be procured with the 
litter among it, to which a small portion of sea-coal ashes 
may vveil be added. In the course of four or five days, the 
dung begins to heat, when a little of it may be drawn fiat 
on the outside, and covered two inches thick with good 
earth ; over which a bell-glass ought to be placed ; and two 
days after, when the soil is warm, the seeds should be sown, 
covered with fresh mould one fourth of an inch thick, and 
the glass again set over it. This must be screened by a 
mat during the night, and in four days the young plants 
will germinate. As soon as they appear, the rest of the 
dung must be beaten close together into a bed for one or 
more lights, which bed should be three feet thick, and cov- 
ered three inches deep with fine, fresh earth ; the frame is 
then to be put on ; and, during the night, or in bad weather, 
sheltered with mats. When the soil is hot enough, the 
young plants must be removed into it, and set at two inches 
distance, the glasses being occasionally raised to admit 
fresh air, and also frequently turned, to prevent the wet 
steam of the dung from dropping dov/n on the plants. These 
ought to be v/atered at stated times, with tepid or iuke-warm 
v/ater ; and, as they increase in size, should be earthed up ; 
an operation which will considerably augment their strength. 
If the bed be not hot enough, fresh litter should be laid 
round its sides; but if it be too warm, it should be perfo- 
rated v/ith a stake to give vent to the heat; and, as soon as 
the bed acquires a proper temperature, the holes are to be 
closed up with fresh earth. When the plants begin to shoot 
' their third 8r rough leaf, another bed should be prepared 
fov Ihcm, similar to the first ; and, when the soil is thorough- 
ly warmed, they should be transplanted into it, in hojes 
about a foot deep, and nine inches broad, filled with light, 
fine, fresh mould, laid in a hollow, circular form. In each 
of these holes f^jur plants should he set, and shaded for two 
or three days from tlie heat of the sun, that they may strike 
root ; after v/hich time it will be useful to expose them to 



CUCUMBER. 



85 



the sun and air, as often as the weather will permit. When 
they have attained the height of four or five inches, they 
should be gently fastened down to the soil, in different di- 
rections ; and the branches afterwards produced ought to 
be treated in a similar manner, as it will much contribute 
to forward their maturity. In the course of a month the 
flowers will appear, and, shortly after, the rudiments of the 
fruit. The glasses should now be carefully covered during 
the night, and the plants gently sprinkled vAih. water in the 
day time. These will produce fruit till midsummer, and 
may be. succeeded by a second crop, vv^hich is to be raised 
nearly in the same manner as the earlier cucumbers, with 
this only difference, that the former should be sow-n toward 
the end of March, or the beginning of April, and that it 
requires less care and attention," — Bom. Encyc, 

The smxallest degree of heat for forcing cucumber plants, 
at the coldest time of night, is 58 degrees ; and the greatest 
heat necessary in the day time is 65 degrees, 

" Well preparing the dung is of the greatest imxportance 
in forcing the cucumber, and if not done before it is made 
into a bed, it cannot be done after, as it requires turning and 
watering to cause it to ferment freely and sweetly; fresh 
dung from the stable will require at least six weeks' prepa- 
ration before it will be fit to receive the plants. A month 
before it is made mto a bed, it should be laid into a heap, 
turned three times, and well shaken to pieces with a fork, 
and the outsides of the heap turned into the middle, and 
the middle to the outsides, that the whole may have a regu- 
lar fermentation; and if any appear dry, it should be made 
vvet, keeping it always betv/een the two extremes of wet 
and dry. A dry spot of ground should be chosen to pre- 
pare the dung on, that the water m.ay drain aw^ay from the 
bottom of the heap. The dung having been a month in 
heap, I make the bed as follows :~I form a stratum one foot 
high, of wood of any kind, but if large the better ; (old roots 
of trees, or any other of little value wdll do ;) this is to drain 
the water from the bottom of the bed; for, after a month's 
preparation, with every care, it will frequently heat itself dry, 
and require water in large quantities, v/hich, if not allov/ed 
to pass ofx freely,, will cause an unwholesome steam to rise, 
in which the cucumber-plant v/ill not grov/ freely: on this 
bottom of wood I m.ake the bed, four feet high, wdth dung, 
gently beating it down with a fork : this is done about the 1st 
November, and by the month of February, the four feet of 
dung will not be more than two feet thick, which, with the 
8 



86 CUCUMBER. 

foot of wood at the bottom, will make the bed three feet 
high ; this I consider a good height, for, if lower, it cannor be 
so well heated by linings, w^hich is the only method of warm- 
ing it in the months of February and March, as by that time 
the first heat of the bed will have quite declined. Having 
made the bed, I p^t on the frames and lights, which I shut 
close till the heat rises. I then give air night and day, suffi- 
cient to allov/ the steam to pass off, and once in two day^. L 
fork the surface over, about nine inches deep, to sweeten it, 
and if, in the operation, I find any part dry, I carefully wet it. 
The bed being quite sweet, I prepare it for the mould, by 
ijv-^king the middle about eight inches lower than the sides, 
as )he sides are lia-ble, from the weight of the frames, to 
settle faster than the middle, v/hich often causes the hills 
of earth to crack, by which the roots of the plants are 
greatly injured." — Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 147. 

Mr. Cobbett says, " If you v/ish to have cucumbers a 
month earlier than the naturpJ ground will bring them, do 
this : — ^Make a hole, and put into it a little hot dung ; let 
the hole be under a warm fence. Put six inches deep of 
iiiie rich earth on the dung. Sow a parcel of seeds in this 
earth ; and cover at night with a bit of carpet, or sail-cloth, 
having first fixed some hoops over this little bed. Before 
tlie plants show the rough leaf, plant two into a little flower- 
pot, and fill as many pots in this way as you please. Have 
a larger bed ready to put the pots into, and covered wdth 
earth, so that the pots may be plunged in the earth up to their 
tops. Cover this bed like the last. When the plants have 
got two rough leaves out, they will begin to make a shoot 
in the middle. Pinch that short off. Let them stand in 
this bed, till your cucumbers sown in the natural ground come 
lip ; then make some little holes in good, rich land, and, 
taking a pot at a time, turn out the hall^ and fix it in the 
hole. These plants v/ill bear a month sooner than those sown 
in the natural ground ; and a square yard will contain thirty- 
six pots, and will, of course, furnish plants for thirty-six hills 
of cucumbers, vrhich, if well managed, will keep on bearing 
till September, Those v/ho have hot-bed frames^ or hand- 
lights J will do this matter very easily. The cucumber plant 
is very tender and juicy ; and, therefor^, when the seed- 
ihigs are put into the pots, they should be watered and 
shaded for a day or two ; when the balls are turned into the 
f^round, thcv pJiould be ivatered. and shaded with a bough 
for one day. That Vv^lll be enough.— I have one observa- 
tion to mak^ upon the cultivation of cueumber^, melons of 



eUCUMBEK. 



all sorts, and that of ail tlie pumpkin and squasli tribe ; and 
that is, that it is a great error to sow them too thick. One 
plant in a hill is enough ; and I would put two into a potj 
merely as a bar against accidents. One will bring more 
weight of fruit than two, (if standing near each other,) two 
more than three, and so on, till you come to fifty in a square 
foot ; and then you will have no fruit at all ! Let any one 
Inake the experiment, and he will find this observation 
mathematically true. When cucumbers are left eight or ten 
plants in a hill, they never shoot strongly. Their vines are 
poor and w^eak. The leaves become yellov/ ; and, if they 
bear at all, it is poor, tasteless fruit that they produce. 
Their bearing is over in a few weeks. V/hereas, a single 
plant, in the same space, will send its fine green vines all 
around it to a great distance, and, if no fruit be left to ripens 
will keep bearing till the white frosts come in the fall. — 
The roots of a cucumber will go ten feet, in fine earth, in 
every direction. Judge then, how ten plants, standing close 
to one another, must produce mutual starvation !" 

Mr. Armstrong has the following observations wdth regard 
to earl}/ cucumbers : — " To obtain these, we must have re- 
course to artificial heat ; and with the less reluctance, as, 
of all plants, the cucumber is that with which it best agrees. 
To this end, therefore, scoop as many large turnips as you 
propose to have ; fill these with good garden mouid^ 
sow in each three or four seeds, and plunge them into a 
hot-bed. The advantage of the scooped turnip, as a seed- 
bed, over pots or vases, will now appear; for, instead of Ihe 
ordinary difficulty of separating the mass of earth and the 
plant from the pot v/hich contained them, and without injury 
to either, we re-interboth pot and plant, and even fmd in the 
one an additional nutriment for the other. The subsequent 
treatment does not differ at all from that of plants sown and 
cultivated in the open air. 

n — Mem. of N. F. Board of Agr. 

vol. ii. p. 115. 

Training. — To force the cucumbers into early fruit, Aber- 
erombie directs to " stop the runners as soon as the plants 
have made two rough leaves : as the bud that produces the 
runner is disclosed at the base of the second rough leaf, it 
maybe cut off or picked out; or, if the runner has already 
started, it may be pinched off close. This is called stop- 
ping at the first joint, and is necessary to promote a stronger, 
stocky growth, and an emission of fruitful laterals ; and 
from these the prolific runners will be successively pro- 
duced. The vinesj without the process of stopping^ woul-d 



88 



CUCUMBER. 



generally be both weaker, and so deficient in fertile rjn- 
ners, that they would sometimes extend two or three feet 
without showing fruit. When plants, which have been 
once stopped, have extended the first runners to three joint*? 
v/ithout showing fruit, they are to be again stopped for the 
r .irpose of strengthening the plant, and disposing it for 
bearing. As fertile runners extend, train them out regular- 
ly along the surface, fastening them down neatly v/ith pegs." 

Upright traming, — Cucumber plants being climbers by 
means of their tendrils, some branchy sticks being placed 
to any advancing runners, they will ascend, and produce 
fruit at a distance from the ground, of a clean growth, free 
from spots and vv^ell fiavoured. "Mr. J. W. of Philadel- 
phia informed Dr. Mease, that he enriched the ground near 
the trunk of a peach tree, and sowxd some cucumber seed, 
which came up very abundantly. He pulled up all the 
plants but one, and permitted the vine to run up the tree. 
It bore 150 cucumbers. The numerous creepers with which 
the cucumber abounds, and the result of this experiment, 
would seem to point out the climbing nature of the plant, 
and the great advantage arising from permitting it to attach 
itself to a frame or tree, instead of confining it to the 
ground." — Dom, Enajc. 

Setting the fruit.— The cucumber," Abercrombie ob- 
serves, bears male and female blossoms distinctly on the 
same plant. The latter only produce the fruit, which ap- 
pears first in miniature, close under the base, even before 
the flower expands. There is never any in the males ; but 
these are placed in the vicinity of the females, and are ab- 
solutely necessary, by the dispersion of their farina, to im- 
pregnate the female blossom ; the fruit of which will not 
otherwise swell to its full size, and the seeds will be abor- 
tive. The early plants under glass, not having the full cur- 
rent of the natural air, nor the assistance of bees and other 
winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial aid of the 
cultivator is necessary to effect the impregnation. At the 
time of fructification, watch the plants daily ; and as soon 
as a female flower and some male blossoms are fully 
expanded, proceed to set the fruit the same day, or next 
morning at furthest. Take oft a male blossom, detaching 
it with part of the footstalk. Hold this betv/een the finge; 
sind thumb ; pull away the iio^ver-leaf close to the stamens 
and anthera or central part, which apply close to the stigma 
or bosom of the female iiower, twirling it a little about, to 
♦discharge tliereon some particles of the fertilizing powder 



CUCUMBER. 



89 



Proceed thus to set every fruit, as the flowers of both sorts 
open, while of a lively, full expansion ; and generally per- 
form it in the early part of the day ; using a fresh male, if 
possible, for each impregnation, as the males are usually 
more abundant than the female blossoms. In consequence, 
the young fruit will soon be observed to swell freely. Cu- 
cumbers attain the proper size for gathering in about fifteen, 
eighteen, or twenty days from the time of setting ; and 
often in succession, for two or three months or more, in the 
same bed, by good culture. The above artificial operation 
will be found both necessary and effectual in forcing the 
cucumber, betvv^een the decline of autumn and May, while 
the plants are mostly shut under glass. In plants m.ore- 
freely exposed to the free air, in the increasing v/armth of 
spring, and in having the full open air in summer, from 
June or July till September, the impregnation is effected 
mostly or wholly by nature. The male flowers, being by 
some ignorantly denominated false blossoms.- are often 
plucked wholly off as useless, under a notion of strengthen- 
ing the plant : but this should not be generally done. 
Where crowded too thick in clusters, some may be thinned 
out moderately ; but their agency being absolutely neces- 
sary in fertilizing the females, they should only be displaced 
as they begin to decay, except w^here they are superabun- 
dant." 

Principal summer crop. — " The ground being dug and 
smoothed, line it into squares of six feet. In the centre of 
each, dig a hole about fourteen inches deep ; fill this Vv^ith 
well rotted dung., and sow on it five or six cucumber seeds : 
cover these with mould, and, when they rise and take a 
rough leaf, select two to each hill, and draw out the 
remainder. This sowing cannot be safely made in our cli- 
mate till the 10th of May. For the fall and pickling 
crops, you must sow the first or second week in July." — 
Armstrong, 

Those cucumbers-, which are sowed as late as July, will 
not require topping or cutting off the runners as before di- 
rected, for at this season vegetation will be less vigorous, 
and there will be lej?s danger of the plant running too much 
to vine. 

Raising plants from cuttings, — ^"Instead of raising cucumber 
plants from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus 
kept on from year to year, in the following manner : — Take a 
shoot that is just ready for stopping, cut it oil' just below the 
joint, behind the joint before wliich the .;hoot should have 
8 



90 CtCL^^iBEIi, 

been stopped ; then cut smooth the lower end of the shoot or 
cutting, and stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about an 
inch deep, and give it plenty of heat, and shade it from the 
rays of the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method, as 
well as by that of laying, cucumbers may be propagated. 

^- Mearns, gardener at Shobden Court, near Leominster, 
propagates his cucumber-plants for a winter crop in this 
way, and "finds that the plants raised from cut.h:;;s are 
less succulent, and therefore do not so readily damp on, or 
suffer from the low temperature to which they are liable to 
be exposed in severe weather ; that they come into bearing 
immediately, as they have formed roots of sufficient strength 
to support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren 
vine as seedlings are apt to do.*' He takes tl e cuttings 
from the tops of the bearing shoots, and plants them in pots 
nine inches deep, half filled with mould. He then w aters 
them, covers the tops of the pots wdth fiat pieces of glass, 
and plunges them into a gentle bottom heat. " The sides 
of the pot act as a sufiicient shade for the cuttings during 
the time they are striking, and the fiat glass, in this and 
other operations, answers all the purposes of bell-glasses. 
The cuttings form roots, and are ready to put off in less than 
a fortnight.^' — Hort, Trans, vol. iv. p. 411. 

Cncmnbers increased by layers, — " As soon as several 
flower-buds appear on a plant, bend the second or third 
joint of a branch below the blossom, fasten it firmly into 
the ground, and cut off the capillary point of the plant ; it 
speedily takes root, and must be separated from the parent 
stock ; as each root has only to supply a few fruits v/iih 
nourishment, it saves room, labour and time, and afi^brds 
a constant supply for eight, twelve and more months, 
which is not so liable to degenerate as if they were raised 
from a variety of seeds.'' — Gleanings in Hiishandry, 

Culture. — In the culture of all the crops, give proper sup- 
plies of water in dry, v/arm weather, two or three times a 
week, or every day when very warmrand dry. If the heat 
in the hot-beds, after three or four weeks or more, be much 
declined, and the nights or general season remain cold, let 
a moderate lining of hot dung be applied to both sides; 
which will not only cause a re%dving heat, but w'iden the 
bed for the roots and runners of the plants to extend. 

Insects, — " The fiy, w^hich is often very destructive to 
cucumbers, melons and pumpkins, may be killed by sprin- 
kling a mixture of tobacco water and red pepper over the 
vines." — Born, Encyc. Spiinkle the plants with a strong 



CUCUJiBER. 



V 

91 



infusion of elder leaves ; that of hops and of walnut leaves 
is likewise recommended ; or, susjjend a diamond-formed 
piece of wdiite paper, shingle, or other piece of w^ood, by a 
thread, tied to the end of a stick stuck in the ground at a 
small distance from the hill, so that the paper shall hang 
directly over the hill and near the plants. The air, by 
constantly vibrating the paper or shingle, wdli have a ten- 
dency to prevent insects from alighting on tlie plants. The 
g'lrest v/ay, however, is to enclose the hills with frames 
covered with gauze, or other cloth of a light texture. The 
follov/ing method of making sieves, or boxes, to protect 
cucumber vines, melon vines, &c. against the yellov/ bug, 
(fee. v/as communicated to the editor of the N. E, Farmer 
by Mr. Levi Bartlett, of Warner, N. H. and published in 
that paper, vol. ii. p. 305. 

''•Take a strip of pine board (about three fourths of an 
inch in thickness is most suitable) eight or ten feet in 
length, and four or five inches in width — plough one edge 
of it wdth a carpenter's plough or match plain — then mark 
off an equal number of side and end pieces ; before sawing 
the side pieces, run a brad-awd through where you v/ant to 
drive your nails, as it is not so likely to split, as after it is 
sawed. The side pieces eleven inches long — ends eight 
inches long. They must be of this particular size, because 
one yard of millinet will just cover nine boxes ; or a third 
of a yard will make three covers. After having nailed 
your boxes, and divided your millinet, have some thin strips 
or tongues, as the carpenters esll them. Press these with 
the edges of the covers into the groove, v/liich fastens them 
much cheaper and more expeditiously than small nails. I 
made about tw^enty last season, and they eflectually 
secured them from the yellow bug, and (by sinking the 
edges of them in the earth a little) frqm worms. But if 
they were of no use but to guard against insects, they v/ould 
be vv^orth having, as they keep off the cold winds, and great- 
ly promote the grov/tli of the vines in the early part of the 
season.'' 

To save seed. — Select some best summer fruit from 
good, productive plants, v/hich permit to . continue in full 
growth till they become yellow. Then cut them from the 
vine, and place them upright on end, in the full sun, for 
two or three weeks ; w^hen they may be cut open, and the 
seed washed out from the pulp ; spread it to dry and har- 
den ; then put it up in papers or bags for future sowing. 
It will remain good for many years ; and seed of three or 



92 



CUKCULIO CUIlilANT. 



four years' keeping is preferable for early frame crops.'' — 
Abercrombie, 

Uses, — ^'Cucumbers are a seJubrious, coolino; fruit, and 
may be safely allowed to consumptive patients, as they sweet- 
en acrid humours, at the same time are gently laxative ; but 
being in a considerable degree acescent, and sometimes at- 
tended with flatulency and diarrhcEa, such effects may be 
prevented by eating them with great moderation ; o.' vvith 
the addition of vinegar and pepper, which counteract their 
natural coldness. If properly pickled, (without colouring 
them with that poisonous metal, copper, or rendering them 
too acrid with stimulant spices,) they are an excellent an- 
tiseptic ; yet we consider them highly improper either for 
children or wet nurses. "--^Dom. Encyc, 

CURCULIO — an insect found in apples and other 
fruits. — See Insects. 

CURHANT. — Ribes. — There are several species ot cur- 
rants, of which the principal are the common red currant, 
the white currant, and the black currant. 

Soil and site, — All the sorts are very hardy, will grow 
freely and bear plentifully, almost any where, alike in open 
and shady situations, by which the fruit may be obtained 
early in June and July, and prolonged for several months 
in succession till October. As to soil, the currant generally 
does well in any common garden ground, well tilled and 
recruited; it bears the greater crop in a strong loam, or 
improved clay, somewhat moist ; the earlier in a sandy light 
mould, which is not poor. Previous to planting, the ground 
should be dug two feet deep. 

The following directions for the cultivation of the cur- 
rant are taken from the Amer. Phil. Trans, vol. i. 1st series. 

Plant them round the quarters in the garden, that they 
may have the benefit of the manure and culture annually 
bestowed thereon, which will consequently make the ber- 
ries large and the juice rich. The red currant is preferable 
to the white, as yielding richer juice, and in much greater 
quantity. 

" Take the most luxuriant slips or shoots of a year's 
growth, set them in the ground about eight inches deep, 
and not less than twenty-four inches distant from each 
other : these never fail of taking root, and generally begin 
to bear in two years. For the rest, let them, from time to 
time, be treated as espaliers, (but not against a wall,) ob- 
serving to keep the roots from suckers and grass. 

^' The goodness of the currant depends upon their hay- 



CURRANT. 



mg the full benefit of the sun and air, to maturate and give 
the berries a proper balsairac quality, by exhaling a due 
proportion of their acid watery particles.'' 

INi'Mahon observes, that " The only proper method of 
propagating gooseberries and currants is by cuttings ; suck- 
ers should never be resorted to, except in cases of necessity, 
for such will always produce others numerously from their 
roots, which carry olY the nourishmeiit, that ought to go 
to the support of the fruit ; and, besides, they form such 
thickets, as to sinother, and deprive them of the berieht of 
a free circulating air. 

" The proper catlings for planting are the shoots of the 
last summer's production, of straight, clean growth ; tliej 
should be taken from healthy trees, and such as are re- 
markp.ble, according to their kinds, for bearing the iinest 
fruit; let each be shortened from about ten to tvv^elve or 
fifteen inches long, according to its strength. 

" Previous to planting, cut oil every bud as close as pos- 
sible to the shoot, except three, four or live, near the top ; 
which are to be left to form the head of the ulant. Some 
people imagine, that the buds of those parts inserted in the 
earth grow into roots, which is by no means the case, na- 
ture never having designed them for such ; the roots, or 
fibres, always strike out through the clean and smooth bark, 
but generally a little belov/ a bud, and sometimes at tlie 
lower extremity of the cutting, from betv/een the bark and 
the v/ood." The cuttings may be first planted in rovvs, 
eighteen inches or tv/o feet asunder, and about eight or 
nine inches apart in the rovvs. When they have had one 
or two years' growth in these rows, they may be planted 
out either in autumn or early in spring, where they are 
intended to produce fruit. Dr. Thacher directs to " let 
110 limbs grow nearer than six inches of the ground. Prune 
the shrub every year*, and keep it thin of wood, leaving 
the middle open ; the limbs extended ; and, when these get 
about three feet in length, cut olf, every spring, all the last 
year's shoots. To cultivate on an extensive scale for the 
purpose of making wdnc, set the bushes in rows, six or 
eight feet between each bush, with intervals of proper width, 
and at regular distances for passing across the rows. It is 
estimated that an acre well cultivated will probably yield 
on an average a quantity cf fruit sufficient to n^sake one 
thousand gallons of Vv ine annually. The expense of ma- 
king this wine is about fifty cents a gaUon. 

The common black currants are lar rcr than the red or 



94 



CUKRANT. 



ivhite, but they have a peculiar flavour, which to some 
persons is unpleasant ; they are, however, wholesome, 
and afford a juice which, when made into syrup with su- 
gar, is much esteemed in sore throats and quinsies. The 
officinal black currant has a small berry, but is highly valu- 
able as a medicine when made into wine. In lung fevers, 
pumd fevers, and ulcerous sore throats, and in putrid dys- 
entery, the medicinal properties of this wine are not to be 
surpassed.^' — ^Thacher^s Orchardist^ p. 225. 

The following receipt for the manufacture of currant 
wine is by Dr. Green, of Mansfield, Mass. 

" Let the currants be fully ripe, and freed from all leaves, 
webs of insects, and decayed or defective fruit ; break and 
press out the juice, and to every gallon of juice add two 
gallons of water, and to every gallon of this mixture three 
and one fourth pounds of good clean sugar, one gill of good 
brandy, and one fourth of an ounce of alum pulverized. 
Mix well together, and put the same into a clean cask. 
To expedite the process, ascertain the number of gallons 
the cask intended for the wine v/ill contain — calculate the 
proportions of the ingredients — put into the cask the juice, 
brandy and alum — dissolve the sugar in water, and fill the 
cask, and with a stick mix the whole together. 

" In the month of March following, draw off the wine, 
adding one gill of brandy to a gallon, and the vdne is 
excellent, and improves by age. After the wine is drawn 
off, the residue may be worked into vinegar, or be suspend- 
ed in a thick bag, in a cool place, that the remaining vdne 
may filter out and be saved.''' 

A kind of wine has been manufactured from the black 
currant, by Samuel Wyllys Pomeroy, of Brighton, Mass. 
which has been much celebrated for its medicinal proper- 
ties. Dr. John G. Coffin, editor of the Boston Medical 
Intelligencer J says of this wine, It has all the good 
properties of the best Port, without any of its heating or 
constipating effects. We could name several instances, 
where, in great debility and exhaustion, after protracted 
and severe fever, and from other causes, nothing else could 
be thought of, or taken v/ith pleasure or advantage, in which 
this wine proved grateful to the palate, and most friendly to 
the stomach; in v/hich, indeed, it was the principal means 
of conducting the patient to health and strength. 

Its exhibition has been attended with remarkable suc- 
cess in the early stages of cliolera and dysentery, — and 
again also in the later stages of these diseases, after the 



» 



CUTTINGSj OR SLIPS. 



95 



symptoms of infiammation or febrile excitemerxt had ceased. 
Ii lias been striidngiy remedial in tlie low states of typhoid 
and bilious fever. The late Capt, Gilchrist, who for several 
years followed the Batavia trade, and who had always suf- 
fered an attack of the severe cholera, which proves so 
d :: tructive of human life in that climate, used to say that 
aiier he had this wine with him, and took two glasses of it 
every morning, he escaped the disease. On one voyage, his 
mate, who had not taken the wine, was seized with this 
complaint, when a bottle or tv/o stopped its progress. ¥v e 
have not room to enumerate many other morbid affections, 
in which this wine has proved useful. In sore throat it lias, 
for many years, been considered almost a specific reme- 
dy." 

CUTTINGS, or SLIPS.— The branches, twigs or slips 
of plants, shrubs or trees, may, sometimes successfully, be 
cut off, and set in the ground to take root and grow. The 
best time for this operation is from the middle of August 
to the middle of April ; but when it is done, the sap ought 
not to be too much in the top ; neither must it be very dry 
or scanty, for the sap in the branches assists it to take root 

When you intend to propagate trees for timber, or for a 
tall, stately growth, be very particular never to take the 
cuttings from horizontal branches, for they will ever have 
an inclination to gvow in a spreading manner ; always make 
choice of perpendicular shoots, and particularly those that 
terminate the branches ; these vv^ili produce the straightes* 
trees. 

The power of protruding buds or roots resides chiefly at 
the joints, or those parts where leaves or buds already ex- 
ist. Cuttings should, therefore, be cut smoothly across at 
an eye or joint. This cutting ought to be made in the 
wood of the growth of the preceding season, or in the 
point between the two growths. It is a common practice 
to cut off the whole or part of the leaves of cuttings, v/hich 
Loudon says is attended with bad effects. 

Cuttings which are difficult to strike may be rendered 
more tractable by previous ringing; if a ring be made on the 
shoot v/nich is to furnish the cutting, a callus Vv^ill be created, 
which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken 
oir, will freely emit roots. A ligature v/ould, perhaps, 
operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently ; it 
should lightly encircle the shoot destined for a catting, and 
the latter should be taken oft when an accumulation of sap 
lias apparently been produced. The amputation in the case 



9G CUTTiNGS, OR SLIPS. 

of tlie ligature, as well as in tliat of the ring, must be made be- 
low the circles, and the cutting must be so planted as to have 
the callus covered with earth." — Hort, Trans, vol. iv. p. 558. 

The insertion of the cuttings may seem an easy mat- 
ter, and none but a practical cultivator would imagine that 
there could be any difference in the growth, between cut- 
tings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at 
its sides. Yet such is actually the case, and some sorts of 
trees, as the orange, ceratonia, &c. if inserted in a mere 
mass of earth, wdli hardly, if at PaU, throw out roots, while, 
if they are inserted in sand, or in earth at the sides of the 
pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they 
seldom fail of becoming rooted plants. Knight found the 
mulberry strike very v/ell by cuttings, when they were so 
inserted, and when their lower ends touched a stratum of 
gravel, or broken pots ; and Hawkins, {Hort, Trans, vol. 
ii. p. 12,) v/ho had often tried to strike orange trees wi'.h- 
out success, at last heard of a method, by which, at first 
trial, eleven cuttings out of thirteen grew. The art is to 
place them to touch the bottom of the pot ; they are then 
to be plunged in a bark or hot-bed, and kept moist." 

"The management of cuttings, after they are planted, de- 
pends on the general principle, that, where life is weak, all 
excesses of exterior agency must have a tendency to render 
it extinct. No cutting requires to be planted deep, though 
such as are large ought to be inserted deeper than such as 
are small. In the C8.se of evergreens, the leaves should be 
kept from touching the soil, otherv^ase they will damp, and 
rot off; and in the case of tubular-stalked plants, wdiich 
tire in general not very easily struck, owing to the Vv^ater 
lodging in the tube, and rotting the cutting, both ends may, 
in some cases, (as in common honey-suckle,) be advanta- 
geously inserted in the Svoil, and, besides a greater certainty 
of success, two plants will be produced. Too much light, 
air, water, heat or cold, are alike injurious. To guard 
against these extremes in tender sorts, the means hith- 
erto devised is that of enclosing an atmosphere over the 
cuttings, by means of a hand or bell-glass, according to 
their d ^llcacy. This preserves a uniform stillness and 
moisture of atmosphere. Immersing the pot in earth, (if 
the cuttings are in pots,) has a tendency to preserve a stea- 
dy, uniform degree of moisture at the roots ; and shading, 
or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a shady situa- 
tion, prevents the bad eiTects of excess of light. Th» only 
method of regulating the heat is by double or single cover- 



DANDELION. 



97 



ings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass placed over a 
bell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a very constant 
degree of heat. Whatever degree of heat is natural to the 
mother plant, when in a growing state, will, in general, be 
most favourable to the growth of cuttings." — Loudon, 

The same writer says, " Every variety of apple may be 
grown from cuttings ; though some with much greater fa- 
cility than others. Ail those of the burknot and codling 
tribes grow as well this way as by any other, and some al- 
lege, that the trees so raised are not liable to canker, (Hort, 
Trans, vol. i. p. 120,) which is supposed to be owing to 
their ' putting out no tap-root, but spreading their nume- 
rous fibres from the knot or bur horizontally.' Even the 
golden pippin may be continued in this way, and the trees 
have remained seven years in perfect health, when grafts 
taken not only from the same tree, but from the very 
branch, part of which was divided into cuttings, cankered 
in two or three years. ' All apple-trees raised in this way,' 
Biggs observes, ' from healthy one-year-old branches, with 
blossom-buds upon them, will continue to go on bearing 
the finest fruit, in a small compass, for many years. Such 
trees are peculiarly proper for forcing, and not liable to 
canker.' — -Hort, Trans, vol. i. p. 65. The cuttings are to 
be chosen from the young wood of horizontal or oblique 
branches, rather than from upright ones ; from six to eight 
inches or more in length, with a small portion of old wood 
at the lovv^er end. Cut off the tip of the shoot, and all the 
buds, excepting two or three next the tip or upper extrem- 
ity ; then smooth the sections at the lower end, and insert 
them three or four inches in sandy loam, pressing the earth 
firmly to them, watering, and covering with a hand-glass. 
The proper time for this operation is early in February, 
and the glass should not be touched, excepting to give 
water, till the shoots have sprung an inch or two. Shade 
during the mid-day sun, and begin to harden by giving air 
in July ; finally, remove the glass in August ; and in October 
transplant to nursery rows, or in pots, according to future 
intention. With the burknot tribe, all that is necessary is 
to plant the cuttings in a shady border, and treat them like 
those of the gooseberry or currant." 

DANDELION. — Leontodon taraxacum,— This is a hardy 
perennial plant, which is found growing spontaneously in 
Great Britain and the United States. Loudon says that this 
vegetable, " though regularly produced in London market, 
is seldom or never cultivated, being generally to be found 
9 



98 



BI2BLE.— DILL. 



in sufficient luxuriance by tlie sides of hedges and dry 
ditches. It might easily be propagated either by seeds or 
roots ; and, if introduced as a garden plant, should have a 
rich, deep soil, and be carefully tied up and earthed round 
to blanch it effectually. Cut olf all the flowers as they 
appear, to prevent the dispersion of the seed, and the weak- 
ening -jf the plant. When salad is scarce, the dandelion 
might be dug up from road-sides in winter, and forced in 
pots like succory. 

Use. — The leaves in early spring, when just unfolding, 
aiibrd a very good ingredient in salads. The French some- 
times eat the young roots, and the etiolated [blanched or 
^vhitened] leaves with thin slices of bread and butter. 
Vv hen blanched, the leaves considerably resemble those of 
endive in taste. The root is considered an equally good 
substitute for coifee as chiccory, and may, like that plant, 
be stored in cellars and barrels, for producing winter salad." 
— CalecL Hori, Mem. iv. 138. In this country, the dan- 
delion has, v/e believe, been used for greens, or pot-herbs 
only, and we have never known it subjected to cultivation. 

DIBBLE — a tool used by gardeners and farmers in Eu- 
rope, chiefly in transplanting.. It consists of a stick about 
a foot or eighteen inches long, slightly sharpened at the 
end, with which a hole is made to receive the plant or 
seed. It may be made of the upper part of an old spade 
or shovel handle, sharpened a little at the lower end. The 
common dibble is about eighteen inches long. The long 
r!ibbie, used for potatoes, is about three and a half feet 
loner. 

riie following method of making holes for beans has 
been recommended, viz. — Take a plank of oak, of such size 
as a man can easily manage, by a handle fixed upright in 
the middle of it, and of such thickness as not to give way 
in working ; in the under part of this plank let there be 
fixed wooden pegs of such length, and at such distance from 
each other, as may form proper holes in the ground fox the 
beans : when the land has been properly prepared, the 
workman must thrust the pegs of this instrument into the 
ground, and proceed sideways, managing it so that there 
may be the same distance between the last row of holes 
made by the first impression and the first row made by the 
next, as there is between the rows of any one impression. 
I'he youngest children may be taught to follow the instru- 
ment, and droD a bean into every liole that it makes. 

l)\Lij. - .'Victhum graveoleiis. — Dill is a haidy biennial 



DRAINS, 



99 



plant, a native of Spain, somewliat similar to fennel, but 
smaller. * It is raised from seed sown in any of the 
autumnal months, or very early in the spring. Half an 
ounce of seed is sufficient for a bed three feet by four feet, 
M'Mahon directs to sow dill broad-cast on four feet wide 
beds, covering it, if sown in autumn, half an inch, and if 
in spring, a quarter of an inch deep : when the plants come 
up, thin them to six inches distance, and the sarne season 
they will perfect their seeds ; which, if any are suffered to 
shed, will not fail to come up plentifully the next year. 
The seeds and leaves of tliis plant are used for giving a 
flavour to pickles, and also occasionally in soups and sauces. 
It is also used in medical preparations. 

DRAINS. — Drains used in agriculture may be divided 
into two kinds, open and covered. They should be of a 
size and depth proportioned to the extent of the tract which 
it is wished to drain, and the probable quantity of w^ater for 
which they are designed to be channels. They should^ 
generally, be carried through the lowest and wettest part 
of the soil. It is a rule in making drains, to begin at the 
lowest place, and work upwards, by which means the water 
will pass from the workmen, and point out the level. The 
mud and other materials, which are dug out of a diich or 
drain, should not be suffered to lie in heaps by the side of 
the ditch, but should be spread as equally as possible over 
the surface of the drained land. In some cases, it will b-e 
expedient to transport the earth taken from ditches to the 
farm-yard or the hog-pen, to form a part of that layer, which 
good farmers generally spread over those places, to imbibe 
liquid manure, or make into compost. In many instances, 
it is asserted, that the earth dug out of ditches, is worth 
enough for manure, to pay for the expense of digging the 
ditches. 

Open drains often answer the purpose not only of con- 
veying off superfluous v/ater, but serve for enclosing fields. 
But they make a hazardous and inconvenient fence without 
the addition of a bank, hedge, or railing. The Farmer'^s 
Assistant says, When a ditch is made for a fence, it ought 
to be four feet wide at the top, one or less at the bottom, 
and about two and a half deep ; with the earth all thrown 
out on one side, and banked up as high as possible." Sir 
John Sinclair states, that "it is a general rule, regarding 
open drains, with a view of giving sufficient slope and sta- 
bility to their sides, that the width at top should be three 
times as much as that which is necessary at the bottom ; and^ 



100 



DRAINS. 



in the case of peat mosses, or soft soils, it should be such 
as to allow the water to run off without stagnation, but not 
with so rapid a motion as to injure the bottom." 

The American editor of Sir John Sinclair's Code of Ag- 
nculture observes, that " The most expeditious, eifectual, 
and economical mode of making a drain would undoubtedly 
be, to use oxen, and a scraper^ or ox-shovel, as it is some- 
times called, — an instrument well known in this country in 
the making of roads. In some cases, this mode might not 
answer, as in very miry grounds, and lands just cleared of 
timber. But v/here lands are very miry, if the process is be- 
gun at the outlet of the water, — and there, indeed, it ought 
always to be begun, — the next adjoining portion will, gene- 
rally, be made so dry as to allow being trodden upon in a 
proper .<=^ason ; and in this way a drain may by degrees be 
carried on tov\^ards the centre. In nineteen cases out of 
twenty, drains may probably be efFected.in this mode. Where 
the ground will admit of it, tv/o men and a boy, and two 
y -L e of oxen, will accomplish more business of this sort in 
a Jay, than half a dozen men in the same time, with only 
.sp:,ides v.nd shovels. Wherever the labour of cattle can be 
ssibstituied in this country for human labour, policy requires 
i- to be lone. The surface of wet and miry land is usually 
full of inequalities ; if a scraper is employed in draining 
them, me earth taken from the drain is easily landed in any 
hollow spot v/hich needs to be filled; and if there are no 
such hollows, or they have already been filled, the earth 
may be spread over the surface in such a manner as to do 
the most good. If the earth is not wanted for other pur- 
poses, it is recommended to drop and spread it, if practi- 
cable, in such a manner as to leave the general surface of 
the land sloping towards the drain, that the water may the 
more readily incline tov/ards it, and pass off. At some dis- 
tance below the surface, in peat grounds, there is usually 
found a hard stratum of earth, called, in the common lan- 
guage of our farmers, hard pan. The hard pan, if ploughed 
into, scraped out, and spread on the surface, would greatly 
improve the texture of such soils. This furnishes another 
argument in favour of using a scraper in draining, for in 
no other v/ay can the upper earth, taken out of the drains, 
be so cheaply rem.oved, and put on the adjoining ; nor in 
any other way can the hard pan be so easily broken up and 
carried off ; nor in t^XiJ other way, oftentimes, can suitable 
earth be so w^ell obtained, for the purpose of spreading it 
over the surface with a view to improve the texhire of the 



BRAINS. 



101 



soil. If the object, be to pile the eartli from tlie drains into 
heapSj with a view to composts, this purpose is completely 
accomplished by means of the scraper.'' 

To make a covered drain, dig a channel betv/een thirty 
and thirty-six inches wide at the top, and six inches, or the 
breadth of a spade, at the bottom, and three feet deep, giv- 
ing it just descent enough to make the v/ater run briskly. 
Fill it half full or more of small stones, thrown in at ran- 
dom, and cover them with a layer of straw, leaves, or the 
small branches of trees wdth the leaves on them ; then fill 
it up to a level v/ith the surface, with the earth that v/as 
thrown out. 

In forming small drains, chiefly for retentive soils, the 
^.ommon plough may be used. A mode described in 
Voung'^s Annals of Agriculture^ from very ample practice, is 
his : he says, wdien he has marked the drains in a field, 
usually a rod asunder, he dravvs two furrow^s v/ith a com- 
mon plough, leaving a balk betwixt them, about fifteen 
inches wide ; then, with a strong, double-breasted plough, 
made on purpose, he splits that balk, and leaves a clean 
furrow fourteen or fifteen inches below the surface ; but 
where the depth of soil requires it, by a second ploughing 
he sinks it to eighteen or twenty inches; it is then ready 
for the land-ditching spade, with v/hich he dig&, fifteen 
inches deep, a drain as narrow as possible. But the method 
followed by some farmers, vv^ho do not possess ploughs made 
on purpose for the w^ork, is this : w^ith their common 
plough, drawn by four or five horses, and usually stirring 
about four or five inches deep, they turn a double fiirrow, 
throwing the earth on each side, and leaving a balk in the 
middle. This balk they raise by a second bout, in the 
same manner ; then they go in the open furrow twice, w^ith 
their common double-breast plough, getting v/hat depth they 
can. After this, they shovel out all the loose m.ould and 
inequalities to the breadth of about a foot ; and thus having 
gained a clear, open furrow, the depth varying according 
to the soil and ploughs, but usually about eight or nine 
inches,, they dig one spit with a draining spade sixteen 
inches deep, thus gaining in the w^hole tv/enty-four or 
twenty-six inches. But as this depth is seldom sufficient, 
when necessary, they throw out another, or even two other 
spits, which makes the whole depth from thirty to forty 
inches. — London, 

Turf-covered drains may be made as follows Turn up a 
deep furrow with a strong plough, clear the sod from the 



102 



earth thus turned up, reduce it to about three inches in 
thickness, and then place it in the furrow from whence it 
was taken. The grassy side being placed uppermost, there 
is a hollow beneath, sufficient to discharge a considerable 
quantity of surface water, which readily sinks into it. 
This mode of draining is used on the sheep farms of the 
Cheviot Hills in England, and is recommended by Sir John 
Sinclair. It would not answer, however, in lands exposed 
to the tread of heavy cattle, as they would be apt to push 
their feet through a covering of turf of no more than three 
or four inches. Perhaps, in a few years, the verdure would 
thicken, and the sward strengthen over drains of this kind, 
so that there w^ould be nothing to apprehend from the tread 
of the heaviest animals. 

Cultivation of drained land, — It is w^ell known that 
swamps, marshes, and other low lands are commonly places 
of deposit for the lighter and more fertile parts of the soil, 
washed from the neighbouring hills. Many marshes are 
in fact intervale land, naturally too w^et for profitable culti- 
vation. Wet lands, which receive the wash of higher 
grounds of a tolerable quality, may be expected to be worth 
considerable expense in draining. A bog, however, on the 
top of a hill, not overlooked by high ground, we should 
suspect of barrenness, and would not be at great expense 
in draining it, without examining and analyzing the soil in 
various parts, and becoming satisfied of its fertility. But a 
drained marsh, which can be flooded at the will of its 
owner, by means of a dam at its cutlet, with w^ater which 
has v/ashed the neighbouring uplands, may be considered 
as inexhaustible, and, perhaps, had better be appropriated 
to the raising of hemp. That plant exhausts the soil very 
much, and it would, therefore, be good economy to raise it 
where the land can be recruited without manure from the 
farm-yard, &c. If the land is rich, not very dry, or water 
can be set back in the ditches, in a dry time, to within 
three or four feet of the surface, it will be quite an object 
to introduce fowl meadow, (Agrostis stricta.) 

It is often advisable to let drained lands lie over one sum- 
mer to ferment and rot, before any attempt to cultivate 
them. Flooding them completely in the winter, and draw- 
ing the water quite off rather late in the spring, will like- 
wise assist in rotting the sod. 

DUCK.- — "Ducks are excellent vermin pickers^ whether 
of caterpillars, (such as are within their reach,) slugs, 
snails and others ; and ought to be turned into the garden 



EGG-PLANT. ELDER. 103 

one or two days every week, throughout the season. 
Never keep them longer in than two or three days at a 
time, else they tire of their food^ and become indolent While 
iiere, they should be ofrered no food, but may have a little 
water set down, to tliem, if there be no pond or stream in 
tlie garden, 

" They are very fond of ripe strawberries or gooseber- 
ries ; and- while they can get at these, will seek little after 
^uialb, or other insects ; but they are most useful before 
tiiese come into season for them. There are some kinds 
of vegetables they have a liking to, and on which they will 
fall, if vermin be any Vv ise scarce ; therefore, v/hen this is 
perceivijd, they f?hould be turned out. Never turn them 
in CO the gfirden in the time of heavy rains, or in continued 
wet v/eaiher ; as, in that case, and particularly if the soil 
be scirf, tbey patter and harden the surface, to the great in- 
jury of small crops, and rising seeds.'' — NicoL 

EGG-PLANT. — Solcmuni melongena. — "There are two 
varieties of this plant, the white-fruited and the purple, cul- 
tivated for culinary purposes ; the latter kind is preferable, 
and. when sliced and nicely fried, approaches, both in taste 
and ilavour, nearer to that of a very nice fried oyster, than, 
perhaps, any other plant. 

This delicious vegetable may be propagated by sowing 
the seed on a slight hot-bed, the beginning of April, or in 
March ; and towards the latter part of May, they should be 
planted in a rich, warm piece of ground, at the distance of 
two feet and a half asunder, every way, for the purple, or 
two feet for the white kind ; and if kept clean, and a little 
earth be drawn up to their stems, when about a foot high, 
they will produce plenty of fruit. Or, the seed may be 
sown about the end of April, on a warm border, and planted 
out finally the beginning of June ; but these will be rather 
late, and not produce fruit so abundantly, in the Middle or 
Eastern States, as by the former method." — M'Mahon, 

^LDFiR.—SambucHS nigra. — This shrub grows plentifully 
in most or all parts of the United States, and is too well 
known to need description. Something, however, may be 
said with regard to its uses, some of which may not be so 
well known. 

" This tree, professor Maftyn observes, is a whole maga- 
zine of physic to rustic practitioners, nor is it quite neg- 
lected by more regular ones. An excellent healing oint- 
ment is made of the green, inner bark, which is also purga- 
tive in moderate, and diuretic in small doses. A decoction 



104 



ELECAMPANE. 



of the flowers promotes expectoration and perspiration, and 
they give a peculiar flavour to vinegar. The flowers are 
leportedi to he fatal to turkeys, and the herries to poultry in 
general. No quadruped will eat the leaves of this tree ; 
notwithstanding it has its own phalcena and aphis. The 
wood is used hy the turner and mathematical instrument 
maker j and is made into skewers for butchers^ tops, an- 
gling, Fodsj^ and needles for v/eaving nets." — Loudon, 

Willich says, " The leaves are eaten by sheep, to which 
it is of great service, Vvben diseased with the rot; for, if 
placed in a situation where they can easily reach the bark 
and young shoots, they will speedily cii^e ther^selves," 

The expressed juice of elder leaves, it is said, will kM 
skippers in cheese, bacon, &c. ; and strong decoctions of it, 
poured or sprinkled over plants, are said to be fatal to insects. 

In Europe, this shrub is sometimes propagated, but in 
this country, to destroy it is commonly an object of more 
consequence to the cultivator. It was remarked by the 
Rev. Dr. Jared Elliot, in his Esmys on Field Husbandry^ that 

Elder bushes are stubborn and hard to subdue, yet I know 
by experience that mowing them Ave times a vear will kill 
them.^^ 

To make elder-berry wine, — One bushel, when picked from 
the stalks, produces three gallons, or upwards, of berries y 
put these to seven gallons of soft water ; after standing forty- 
eight hours, put them into the coppei*, let them boil one 
hour, then press the juice through a coarse cloth ; then put 
the liquor into your copper again, v/ith twenty pounds of 
raw sugar, half a pound of Jamaica ginger, bruised, one 
ounce of cloves, and one ounce of allspice. Boil the whole 
together one hour, then put it into a tub, and, when cold 
enough, add some good yest spread on a toast, and in tw^o 
days put it all into a cask, and lay the bung lightly on for 
two months ; then add one quart of brandy ; this wine will 
keep for several years. 

ELECAMPANE.— Ma.— This plant is found wild in 
moist pastures, both in Europe and America. It may be 
propagated either by seeds, sown in October, or oflsets, 
which, if carefully taken from the old roots, with a bud or 
eye to each, will take root freely. M'Mahon directs to set 
such offsets in rows, about a foot asunder, and the same 
distance plant from plant in the rows. They vAll be fit for 
use after two years' growth, but will abide many years if 
permitted to stand. But young roots are preferable to those 
which are old, as they become tough and stringy by age. 



ENDIVE. 



105 



CZse.— This is a piaiit of some rep^ute in medicine. It is 
said to strengthen the stomach and promote perspiration. 
An infusion of the rocts, sweetened with honey, is useful in 
booping cough. If liberallj taken, they are diuretic, 
and said to be of great service in removing visceral obstruc- 
tions. A decoction of this plant has been employed by 
farmers for the cure oi scab in sheep ; and externally ap- 
plied for removing disorders of the skin. The fresh roots 
beaten in a morttirj Vv itii new butter, and applied externally, 
are said to cure the itch, scald h^aci, &e, 

ENDIVE. — Cklwdicm endlvia. — The endive is a hardy 
annuaij a native of China and Japan, and introduced into 
Great Britain in 1548. The varieties are 

Green curled leaves, [ Vs'liile Diuisd leaves, | Eroad-leaved Batavian. 

Estimate of sorts. — ^'All the sorts are eligible for culture; 
but allot, principally, the green c>arled for the main crops 
of autumn and winter endive, this being of the most stocky, 
full growth, and hardieijt to stand severe weather. As to 
the others, allot a smaller porticL^ of the white curled for 
tiarly summer and autumn use : of the broad-leaved kind, 
provide a moderate crop for autumn, till November or De- 
cember ; being by some esteemed preferable for stews and 
soups, though not inueh used in sale'ds^^^ 

Propagatimi.- — Ail the varieties are raised from seed, of 
%vhieh, for a seed-bed four feet by ten in length, half an 
ounce is sufficient. 

Times of sowing. — " The proper seasons are, May, for a 
mnaller early crop ; and pniicipaliy June and July to the 
beginning of August; for full and successive crops, all autumn 
and winter, till the folio vviiig spring. For, if sown earlier 
inan the middle of iJay, or beginning of June, they will 
mostly run to stalk the same sessGii, before attaining mature, 
useful growth. If any are required for early young sumxmer 
endive, sow only a small portion of the white curled in 
April or May, as the plants will soon run to seed. In the 
middle, or towards the end of May, you may begin sowdng 
moderately of the different sorts ; but do not sow fully tiL 
nearly the middle of June, that the plants may stand with- 
out running to seed the same year. About the twelfth anis 
twenty-fifth of that month, also at the beginning and middle 
of July, sovv the main and successive crops, for autumn and 
winter; and a finer, smaller sowdng about the beginning of 
August, for late supplies in the end of winter and followdn^ 
spring. 

CuJiuj-e in tJie seed-befL — " Sow each sort separately in 



106 



ENDIVE. 



beds of rich, mellow earth, in an open situation, scattering 
the seeds thinly, and rake in the seed. When the plants 
are np an inch or two in growth, thin them moderately^ 
where in clusters^ that they may have room to grow 
stronger and stocky, for transplanting. But if a portion are 
sown in soil of sufficient depth, and thinned to the distances 
mentioned under tramplantmgy instead of being movedy 
they may be expected to produce heads of the iinest kind, 
under the same culture is given to the others, 

Trmisplantmg. — As the plants attain a sufficient growth 5, 
being from four to six inches high, or in a month or five 
weeks from the time of sowing, proceed to transplant the 
successive crops. The ground should be light and rich, oi> 
a dry sub-soil. Dig it a full spit deep; set in shallow 
trenches or drills the depth of a hoe, endive blanches with 
' less trouble than if inserted on a kvel surface. The lines 
may be fifteen inches asunder the plants ten or twelve 
inches distant in the lines. Drawing the strongest first, 
plant out portions from June to October ; but the principal 
removals will fall in August, in which month three different 
plantings may be made for succession ; also for a general 
winter crop, at the beginning of September. While the 
plants are in hand, trim the extremities of the leaves, aiid 
shorten the tap roots a little ; water at planting, and mode- 
rately afterwards, once in tvv o days, if the weather be dry^ 
till the plants take root. At the end of September, and 
in October, likewise, plant some in a warm, dry border, to 
stand the winter more effectually. Also^ in the last fort- 
night of October or beginning of November, it would be 
proper to insert some stout plants, thickly, on a b^nk of 
dry, light soil, raised a foot or two behind, sloping to the 
south. Thus they will remain drier in winter, and will be 
preserved more securely from rotting in that season. The 
bed might also be defended, in very severe weather, with 
frames and glasses, or with an occasional awning of matfs 
or sail cloth. 

Blmiehing. — " As the transplanted crops advance to full 
growth, stocky and full in the heart, some should have the 
leaves tied up every week or fortnight, to blanch or whiten,, 
and to render them tender, crisp, and mild-tasted. Perform 
this in dry days, and in winter, when the weather is dry 
without frost. Using strings of fresh bass, or sm^li osier 
twigs^ tie the leaves regularly together, a little above the 
middle, moderately close. If the soil be light and dry^j 
earth them up half way ; but if m^oist^ merely tie therft. 



ESPALIERS. 



107 



The two curled sorts, if neatly earthed up', will blanch pret- 
tr well without being tied. The Batavian, from its loftier, 
looser growth, in every case hearts and blanches better- 
uith a bandage. The blanching will be completed some- 
times in a week, when the weather is hot and dry ; at 
others^ it may take a fortnight or three weeks ; after which 
the endive should be taken up for use, or it will soon rot, 
in six days or less, especially if much rain fall. To save 
the trouble of tyiug, this esculent is also occasionally 
blanched by setting up flat tiles, or boards, on each side of 
ihe plants, which, resting against each other in an angular 
form, and confined with earth, exclude the light. Further, 
endive may be blanched under garden-pots or blanching- 
pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the heat of summer 
and autumn, tying up is best ; but in wet or, cold weather, 
to cover the plants preserves while it blanches them. 

Occasioned shelter, — At the approach of severe frost, 
cover some thickly with straw^ litter. Also plunge a por- 
tion into a raised bank of light, dry earth, under a glass 
case, or covered shed, open to the south. Protect with 
litter in rigorous weather ; but uncover, and give plenty of 
air, on mild days. 

To save seed.—'^ Allot some of the strongest old plants 
in February or March, if any remain ; otherwise, sow seed 
ill March or April, and transplant or thin the plants to twelve 
or fifteen inches distance. They will shoot, and the seed 
ripen in autumn. 

Use, — " It is cultivated for the stocky head of leaves, 
which, after being blanched to take away the bitter taste, 
are used in salads and stews.'" — Loudon, 

ESPALIERS. — Espaliers in horticulture are rows of 
trees, planted in gardens or hedges, and trained to rails, 
lattices or trellises of wood work, &c. 

The trees chiefly planted for espaliers are, apples, pears, 
and plums. Espalier rails are substitutes for walls, and 
which they so far resemble, that the trees are regularly 
spread and trained along them, are fully exposed to the 
light, and, having their branches fixed, are less liable to be 
injured by high winds. They may be made of wood, cast 
iron, or v/ire and wood. 

"An espalier has this advantage over a wall tree, that, 
as being wholly detached, the branches have liberty to form 
fruit spurs on both sides, which, in the wall tree cannot be 
eifected but on one ; in fact, common fruit walls are un- 
necessary in the United States, except in the Eastern 



108 



and some of the* Middle States, where they are useful i-, 
forwarding, to due perfection and flavour^ some late kindy 
of snperior peaches^ grapes, and other late fruits ; but when 
walls are built for other purposes, and are conveniently 
situated, advantage ought to be taken of them for raising 
fruit; observing to suit the various kinds to the various 
aspects." — M'Mahon. 

FENNEL. — Anethum fozniculmn, — " The fennel is a per- 
ennial plant, naturalized in England, and found in chalky 
soils. The plant rises with finely cut leaves, and capillary 
leaflets, on a smooth, dark-green, branched, tubular staik, 
to the height of five or six feet. On the summit are pro- 
duced umbels of gold-coloured flowers, in July and August. 
The whole plant is aromatic, and has long been an inmate 
of the garden. 

" Use, — The tender stalks of common fennel are used in 
salads ; the leaves, boiled, enter into many fish sauces ; 
and, raw, are garnishes for several dishes. The blanched 
stalks of the variety called finochio are eaten with oil, vine- 
gar, and pepper, as a cold salad, and they are likewise 
sometimes put into soups. 

" The varieties are — 



The common, or sweet, 

Dark-^reeii-Ieaved; 

Dwart, or finochio. This variety 
is characterized by a tendency in 
the stalk to swell to a consider- 
able thickness. This thickened 
part is blanched by earthing up, 
and is then very tender. ' Ow- 



ing" to the peculiar nature of this va- 
riety/ Neill observ^es, ' it is more 
tender than the common fennel, and 
often perishes in the course of the 
winter. Misled by this circum- 
stance, several horticultural writers 
describe it as an annual species, un- 
der the appellation A. segetum.' 



Propagation, — They are all raised from seed, of which 
half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet by six 
feet. Sometimes, also, they are raised from offsets from the 
old plants, where only a few are wanted. ' Sow in the 
spring in light earth, either in drills from six to twelve 
inches apart, or broad-cast and raked in. When the plants 
are three or four inches high, thin or transplant a quantity 
fifteen inches asunder. As the roots of old plants divide 
into side offsets, these may be slipped off in spring, sum- 
mer, or autumn, and planted a foot apart. They will pro- 
duce immediate leaves for present supply, and in continu- 
ance ; or, for an immediate larger supply of leaves, you may 
procure some established full roots, and plant as above : let 
them be well watered.' 

" Suhsequerd culture. — ' The same plants remain several 
years by the root ; but as fennel sends up strong stems for 



FLOWEKb. 



109 



seed in summer, these, or a part of them, should he cut 
down, to encourage a production of young leaves below, iu 
succession. It is apt to spread more than is desirable, if 
suffered to seed. The swelling stems of the finochio varie- 
ty, when of some tolerable substance, should be earthed up 
on each side five or six inches, to blanch them white and 
tender. This will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ; 
and, by successive sowings, or cutting down plants during 
summer, successive crops of blanched stalks may be had 
from June to December.' 

To save seed, — 'Permit some of the best stalks to shoot; 
they will produce large umbels of seed in autumn.' — Aher- 

FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL.— Should the agricul- 
turist have no taste for ornamental gardening, yet such is 
the laudable taste of the fair daughters of America, at the 
present day, that there are but comparatively few, that 
do not take an interest in a flower garden. And this 
alone is a sufficient reason for the publication of these 
remarks. 

Horticulture, as it respects ornamental gardening, is 
one of the most innocent, the most healthy, and, to some, the 
most pleasing employment in life. The rural scenes which 
it affords are instructive lessons, tending to moral and social 
virtue ; teaching us to " look through nature up to nature's 
God." 

Flower gardens were ever held in high estimation by 
persons of taste. Emperors and kings have been delighted 
with the expansion of flowers. " Consider the lilies of the 
jieldj^^ said an exalted personage, "Aomj they grotv for 
Solomon, when clothed in the purple of royalty, " was not 
arrayed like one of these,''^ Nature, in her gay attire, 
unfolds to view a vast variety, which is pleasing to the hu- 
man mind ; and consequently has a tendency to tranquillize 
the agitated passions, and exhilarate the man, nerve the 
imagination, and render all around him delightful. 

The cultivation of flowers is an employment adapted to 
every grade, the high and the low, the rich and the poor ; 
but especially to those who have retired from (he busy 
scenes of active life. Man was never made to rust out in 
idleness. A degree of exercise is as necessary for the 
preservation of health, both of body and mind, as food. 
And what exercise is more fit for him, who is in the decline 
of life, than that of superintending a well ordered garden ? 
What more enlivens the sinking mnd ? What more invigo 
10 



110 



FLOWERS 



rates the feeble frame ? What is more conducive to a long 
life? 

Floriculture is peculiarly calculated for the amusement 
of youth. It may teach them many important lessons. 
Let a piece of ground be appropriated to their use — to im- 
prove in such a manner as their inclinations shall dictate — 
to cultivate such plants as are pleasing to their taste; and 
let them receive the proceeds. Let order and neatness 
pervade their little plantations. Let them be instructed, 
that nothing valuable is to be obtained or preserved without 
labour^ care, and attention — that as every vahiabie plant must 
be defended, and every noxious weed removed, so every 
moral virtue must be protected, and every corrupt passion 
and propensity subdued. 

The cultivation of flowers is an appropriate amusement 
for young ladies. It teaches neatness, cultivates a correct 
taste, and furnishes the mind with many pleasing ideas. 
The delicate form and features, the mildness and sympathy 
of disposition, render them fit subjects to raise those tran- 
scendent beauties of nature, which declare the '^per- 
fections cf the Creator's power." The splendid lus- 
tre and veriegated hues - (which bid defiance to the 
pencil) or the rose, the lily, the tulip, and a thousand 
others, hnrnonlze with the fair, fostering hand that tends 
them— v^itL the heart susceptible to the noblest impres- 
sions — and with spotless innocence. 

Situation, — As to the proper situation for a garden, it is 
not alwaj's in our power to choose. A level plat, however, 
is to be preferred ; for, if there be considerable descent, the 
heavy r?ins w^ill wash away the soil. A southern aspect, 
sheltered from the north and north-west winds, is a proper 
situation for most plants. An inclination towards the north, 
or west, or any point between them, should, if possible, be 
avoided. 

Soil, — The natural soil should be a deep loam, which is 
easily made rich by old, rotten manure. But here, again, it 
is not always in our power to choose such a soil. In such 
cases we must endeavour to imitate — we must dig and carry 
off — and bring on loam, &c. and make a rich soil. The 
ground ought to be well pulverized v/ith the plough or the 
spade. In a word, what is wanted, is a deep, rich soil, 
natural or artificial, not too wet, nor too dry. 

The ground in a garden must be kept rich, and often 
stirred. It ought to be manured every year. A compost 
made of decayed vegetables, yard manure, rotten leaves, 



FLOWERS. 



Ill 



ashes, and mould from any place, v/here it can be had, is 
proper for a garden. A garden should be well defended, 
by a high and tight fence, especially on the north and west 
Sowing and planting. — la the first place, the ground must 
be made fine, as well as rich. It should be moderately 
moist, not too %vet, nor too dry. The beds should be raised 
three or four inches above the level of the walks; and the 
seeds ought, by all means, to be sown in rows, ten or 
tw elve inches apart ; and the earth should be moderately 
pressed upon them. The time for sowing either annual, 
biennial, or perennial flower-seeds, is in the months of 
April and May, according to the state of the season. Very 
small seeds may be covered vAth fine earth nearly half an 
inch ; larger ones in proportion to their size ; and those as 
large as a pea, to the depth of an inch, or a little more. 
Seeds of delicate plants should be planted in flower-pots, 
and the earth kept moderately moist, by watering with a 
w^atering-pot, that is finely pierced, and does not pour 
heavily ; or the pot may be placed in the pan, and water 
supplied at the bottom. The pots should be exposed to the 
sun, except from eleven, A. M., to two, P. M., when a pow- 
erful sun might scorch the vegetating seed. The mould 
for pots should be rich, and sifted through a coarse sieve, 
made for that purpose. 

Transplanting, — The best time, perhaps, for transplant- 
ing annual plants is in June, and for biennial and perennial 
plants in September or the beginning of October, remem- 
bering, in all cases, to take a sufficient quantity of earth, 
with the roots, where it can be done w ith propriety. Scoop 
trowels will be found useful instruments in this operation, 
which ought not to be done when the ground is very wet, 
but when it is only moderately moist, and in a cloudy day, 
or a little before the evening, or previous to a shower. If 
the ground be dry, shading the plants, and a little water, 
may be necessary, for a short time. In case the roots 
should be small, or injured, or destitute of earth, when ta- 
ken up, they must be shaded during the day, until they 
have gained strength. In placing a plant where it is to 
stand, great care is necessary to place the roots in their 
natural position, to bring the earth in contact wdth them, 
and to press the earth moderately about them. 

If the plant is to be planted in a pot, place a piece of 
earthen ware over the aperture in the bottom, that the su- 
perabundant w^ater may drain oft, which w^ould otherwise 
saturate and rot the roots. The pots should be nearly filled 



112 



FLOWERS. 



with ricli earth, and the plant carefully placed in the centre, 
and the mould brought into contact with the roots, and 
moderately pressed. 

Cultivation, — The plants must be properly thinned 
while they are small ; for, if left too near each other, they 
interfere, grow slender and weakly. As the plants increase 
in size, remove the weakest, and so continue to do, until 
they stand at a proper distance. All plants of every de- 
scription should stand at such distance one from the other, 
as that the air may circulate freely about them, and that 
the sun may have its proper influence in bringiog them to 
perfection. The air and sun are absolutely necessary in 
perfecting the growth of plants, which never ought to stand 
56 near as to interfere with each other. 

The earth ought to be kept loose about the plants, and 
for this purpose a prong-hoe is a useful instrument. Mov- 
ing the earth should be done in dry weather ; as ploughing, 
digging, or hoeing in wet weather, leaves the ground in a 
Dad, clammy state. In a dry season, stir the earth about 

Elants, and spread old coarse hay or straw about them. Old 
ay spread about the plants keeps the earth cool, and re- 
tains the moisture, and is very useful to vines. 

Weeds of every species must be removed, and the soon- 
er the better after their appearance. No weed should be 
Buffered to flower in a garden, nor in its border. The beauty 
of a garden depends very much on order and neatness — a 
place for everything, and every thing in its place — keeping 
out the weeds, and removing every thing when decayed. 
No garden can show to advantage, where weeds are per- 
mitted to usurp the place of useful plants. 

Shrubbery in general requires some attention. Prune out 
all inferior, dead, and decaying branches. Keep down the 
suckers, and clean out the weeds, and stir the earth about 
the roots occasionally. Order and neatness add a lustre to 
every thing. 

Cuttings are pieces, cut from trees, shrubs, or plants of 
the last growth, and should generally retain a small piece 
of the growth immediately preceding the last or ripened 
wood. They should be taken when the sap is active, and 
about six joints or buds are sufficient. Cut them with a 
sharp knife, transversely and smoothly, near a joint or bud 
of the previous growth, or between the two last growths. 
Set them in rich, moist ground, in a shady place, leaving 
two or three joints or buds above the surface. If the weath- 
er be dry, water them, and place old hay about them, to 



FLOWERS. 



113 



keep the earLh rr.oist. Such parts of herbaceous plants 
should be tak-.i for cuttings, as do not show a tendency to 
fiower. If the cutting be planted in a flower-pot, place the 
pot in tlie earib, in a shady place, and cover the cutting 
with an inverted glass, for a short time, to preserve a moist 
atinospliere about it. If they send out roots, they will also 
send out branches, otherwise they die. 

Lawyers are branches left on the parent plant or shrub, 
and bent down, and fastened several inches (according to 
the case) belov*^ the surface of the earth, leaving the ex- 
treme part out of the ground. A flat stone, placed on the 
earth immediately above the layer, is useful to keep the 
earth coo], and to retain the moisture. When they have 
taken suflicient root, sever them from the parent stock, and 
at any proper time they may be transplanted. 

As to the cultivation of herbaceous plants and shrubs in 
pots, a few directions may be necessary. — The earth should 
be kept moderately moist. The mould on the top should 
be dry before additional water be given. The pots should 
be frequently turned round, or the plants will grow crooked 
by reason of their inclining towards the sun or light. If 
the plants are to stand in pots, year after year, the balls of 
eardi should be taken out in October, and the sides and 
bottom shaved oil with a sharp knife, to the depth of an 
inch, more or less, according to the size, and then replaced, 
and the pot filled with some fresh compost or very rich earth 
made very fine. Two thirds of good rich earth and one 
third of old rotten yard-manure, well incorporated, make a 
good compost for most plants, except the bulbous-rooted, 
v/hich require some sand. 

Protection during the winter, — Herbaceous plants in gene- 
ral require some slight covering during the severity of a 
northern winter. Pine boughs, strawi, old coarse hay, or 
leaves, are useful for this purpose, and may be removed 
about the first of April or before, if the weather will permit. 

BULBOUS FLOWER ROOTS.— No class of plants is 
more interesting, perhaps, than this ; yet merely an outline 
of the mode of cultivation must suflice. 

Situation. — A southern exposure, not too wet nor too dry, 
sheltered from the north and north-west winds, ip proper for 
most bulbous roots. 

Soil. — Bulbous flower roots do best in a soil composed 
of one third sand, one third old rotten yard-manure, and one 
third good rich earth, well pulverized and mixed together ; 
and if a small proportion, say about one fourth, of decomposed 
10=^ 



114 * FLOWERS. 

Tegetable mould, from a wood or swamp, be added, it will 
have a good effect by giving additional lightness to the soil. 
The beds should be raised four or five inches above the 
level of the walks, that the superfluous moisture may run 
off. Some additional sand, strewed in the trenches made for 
the roots, before and after planting them, is recommended. 

Transplanting, — The proper season for tre^nsplanting most 
bulbous roots, is in August, September, and October. The 
only advantage to be gained, by taking up bulbs, after 
blooming, (tulips excepted,) is either to divide the roots, 
when too numerous, or to renew a worn out soil, neither of 
which can occur oftener than once in three or four years. 
Tulips and hyacinths, when taken up after blooming, and 
after the foliage is decayed, may be kept from the ground 
till the middle of October. 

Delicate and tender bulbs, as the Feraria tigrida, &c. 
may be planted in pots in November, or they may be kept 
in dry sand until April, (which is best,) and then planted in 
pots or open ground. In either case they must be secured 
from the frost. As to tulips and hyacinths, in order to 
reserve their beauty in perfection, the nicer varieties should 
e taken up, air-dried, and replanted annually. 

Depths and distances, — Large bulbs, as the hyacinth and 
the large lilies, should be planted to the depth of four inch- 
es ; tulips. Narcissus, jonquils, three inches ; crocus, Fe- 
raria tigrida, gladiolus, &c. two inches, always measuring 
from the top of the bulb. The polyanthos Narcissus may 
be planted five or six inches deep. The rows should be 
ten or twelve inches asunder, and the roots placed from 
three to eight inches apart, according to the size of the 
plants. 

Protection during winter, — Bulbous roots should be cover- 
ed in November wdth tanners' bark, leaves, rubbish of the 
garden, or some light substance, to the depth of three 
inches, to prevent the bad effects of severe frosts. Polyan- 
thos Narcissus is more tender than hyacinths, and ought to 
be covered six or seven inches. The covering must be 
removed early in the spring. 

Management of bulbous roots in pots, — Hyacinths, polyan- 
thos Narcissus, double Narcissus, and jonquils, make a 
beautiful appearance, during winter, in the parlour. 

Bulbs intended for blooming in the winter, should be 
potted in October or November, and left out until it begins 
to freeze, and then placed in a warm room. They will 
want, occasionally, a little water, until they begin to grow ; 



FLOWERS. 



115 



then they should have both air and sim, and plenty of wa- 
ter from the saucers or pans, underneath the pots. 

Those bulbs, as hyacinths, &c. which are designed to 
flower in glasses, should be placed in them towards the 
end of November, the glasses being lirst filled with rain- 
water, so that the bulbs may come in contact with it. 
Then place them in a dark place for a few days, to promote 
the shooting of the roots, after which expose them to the 
light and sun, and change the water as often as it becomes 
impure, not suffering it to fi^eeze. 

Bulbous-rooted plants, growing in pots, should be fre- 
quently turned round, as they will incline to the sun or 
light — the earth on the top should be suffered to dry, 
before the next watering — when the plants have done 
growing, give them little or no water. If the plant be so 
managed the present year, as not to have a flower-bud 
formed in miniature, there will be no flower in the next. 
If the leaves be well grown, and the plant properly ex- 
posed to the air and sun, then the sap will be duly prepared 
by them, and an embryo flower will be formed in the bulb. 
All bulbs, in a certain period of the year, are dormant ; this 
state ccmmences when the foliage begins to decay, after 
blooming — then lessen the supplies of water, and in a little 
time cease to water altogether, until the season of regermi- 
nation returns. The bulbs, during this time, may be kept 
in *^he pots in a dry, shady place, and in the same tempera- 
ture as that in which they delight to grow. 

Generally, it is best to take the bulbs out of the pots, 
after the decay of the foliage, and repot them in a fresh 
soil or compost, (mentioned above for bulbs,) a week or 
two before the period of regerminating ; at which time 
water will be necessary, and may be applied at the bottom, 
pouring into the pan, or it may be applied by a small water- 
ing-pot, that pours lightly, on the top, so as to keep the 
earth moderately moist. The earth should be kept loose 
on the top, and the water used for the plants ought to be 
rain water, or such as has been exposed to the sun. Water 
that has been filtered through a rich compost is very useful. 

The proper time to take up bulbous roots is in about a 
month after blooming, when the foliage has a yellowish, 
decayed appearance. Cut ofl" the stem and foliage within 
an inch of the bulb, leaving the fibrous roots attached to it. 
After they are air-dried, place them singly in paper or dry 
sand, until replanted, or spread them on shelves in a dry 
apartment. 



116 



FLOWERS. 



Flowers are divided into annuals^ which flower and die 
the year they are sown ; biennials^ w^hich flower the second 
year, and then die ; and perennials^ which do not, general- 
ly, flower the first year, but die down to the ground annu- 
ally, and spring up again every succeeding spring for a 
number of years. 

In the follovvdng alphabetical list, flowering trees and 
shrubs are included. We shall select such plants, shrubs, 
and trees, as are of easy cultivation, generally hardy — such 
as have singular foliage, fragrant odours, or beautiful flow^ers 
— such as make a handsome appearance. As to placing 
them in the garden, or elsev^here, to advantage, we leave 
it to the convenience and taste of the proprietor. 

Althaea fuvt ex— Hibiscus Syriaciis — is a beautiful shrub, 
but requires a warm, sheltered situation in the Northern 
States. It is easily raised from the seeds, sown in the 
spring. The young plants must be well protected during 
the winter. 

Almond, double-flowering — Amygdalus pumilor — is a 
shrub, wdiich is, generally, in the spring, loaded with beau- 
tiful flo%vers, resembling small roses. When in bloom, it is 
not inferior to any shrub vvbatever, and makes a fine ap- 
pearance in a border. It is propagated by suckers. 

Amaranthtjs superbus — a^nnual — superb — flowers late 
— tender — plant the seed in May, or before, if the season 
be mild. 

Amaranth us tricolor. — -This plant is annual, and is 
admired for its beautiful foliage, red, green and yellow^ — ten- 
der. The seed is found in little tufts about the stalk, and 
should be sown in May, or before, if the weather be warm. 

Animated oats — Ave/ia sensitka — are annual, and re- 
semble the common oats, while growing. The seeds are 
clothed w-ith a stiff down, and have appendages like the 
legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are af- 
fected by the changes of the weather, and, of course, are 
continuali;/ moving. If they be wet, they W'ill turn over 
several times, and tv/ist about. If wet, and held to a light- 
ed lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agony, as 
an insect Vvould, placed in a like situation. 

Aster, China. — It is annual, and produces many flowers, 
beautiful to the sight. There are many species, as red, 
white, purple, striped, quilled, &c. The seed should be 
sown early in the spriiip;. It flowers late in the season, 
and endures some frost, but will not stand a severe one. 

Auriclla. — This is one of the flowers, the species of 



FLOWERS. 



117 



which are distinguished by having awarded to them the 
names of famous men^ famous women, famous cities, famous 
battles, &e. It may be raised from seed ; but the flowers so 
raised do not resemble those of the parent plant, except by 
mere accident. However, if a flower be produced different 
from any which has appeared before, there will be a cl ance 
to add to the list of names. Auriculas are best propagated 
by dividing the roots, which send out several young plants 
annually. They are tender, and, if planted in open ground, 
they must be well covered, and be kept from severe frost 
and rain during the winter. They are well calculated for 
pots, to flower in the parlour. 

Azalea nudiflora. — Several species — commonly called 
American honeysuckle. This shrub blows profusely — very 
fragrant, and makes a fine appearance in a border. 

Box — Buxus seinpervirens — is a small, delicate shrub, 
which may be pruned to any shape, to please the fancy. 
It is an evergreen, hardy, and is proper to trim beds. It 
appears well in a border. It is propagated by cuttings, or 
by dividing the roots. If a pla.nt be placed deep in the 
earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the 
small branches, (being spread as much as possible,) they 
will send out roots, and afford a great number of small 
plants. The small branches are used by the ladies to trim 
cake, &c. 

Brier, sweet — Rosa ruhiginosa — is a well known bush 
of the rose family — very hardy — foliage bright and fragrant 
— will grow in poor ground. 

Canterbury bell — Campanula medium — is a biennial 
plant, and is admired for its profusion of large blue flowers. 

Carnation. — Dianthus caryophyllm. — Here is beauty and 
fragrance. It is a superb plant, and is biennial and peren- 
nial. There are various kinds, distinguished by names 
like those of the auricula, and what was said of the seed 
of that plant applies to this. It is best propagated by layers. 
While it is in flower, it sends out several side shoots near 
the root. These are pinned down in August a little under 
the earth, leaving the extreme part erect. In a little time 
they take root, and the new plant must be severed from the 
old and transplanted. The old plant does not always stand 
another winter ; therefore, its branches are thus used to 
continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to 
frost, and must be well covered, as far north as Massachu- 
setts, to live through the winter. It is best to put them ia 
large pots^ and to keep them in a green-house, or parlour, 



118 



FLOV/EES. 



or in some place Where tliey can have air and light, during 
the winter. They merit all the care that can be bestowed 
upon them. 

Cassia^ Marylandica is a perenPiiai plant, producing 
many small yellow liowers, suitable only to stand in a bor- 
der. It is hardy, and is propagated by seed. 

Catalpa — Catalpa syringcBfoUa — is a beautiful tree, much 
admired for its foliage and showy fiov/ers. It is propagated 
by seed. 

Cherry, double-flowering. — This is one of the most 
beautiful trees in the flower-garden or shrubbery ; cultiva- 
tion the same as that of the common cherry. 

Chrysanthemum Indicujm. — This is a superb perennial 
flower, much esteemed; being hardy, and aflbrding a bril- 
liant display of beauty, late in the autumn, when the chilling 
blasts of the north-west and frosts have only left us the 
vestiges of departed verdure. They may stand in open 
ground until August or September, and then be taken up 
and placed in pots, heii the frosts appear, keep them in 
a sitting room until ef er flowering, which is a long time, 
and then the ro;;ts mn V be put in the cellar, or in open 
ground. They will i]-; wer in the garden, if properly cov- 
ered with glass. There are many varieties, all of Vt^hich 
are propagated by dividing the roots. 

Clematis, Austrian— C/6;?:a^is integrifQlia—is a peren- 
nial plant, producing very neat flowers. Best propagated 
by dividing the roots. 

Clethra- -C/ef/ira ahifolia — is a very common shrub, 
which produces fragrant flowers, in clusters, in the autumn. 

Columbine. — AqitUegia, — Perennial — very common — 
very neat — many species. 

Convolvulus. — Many species — annual. — Convolvulus 
major is commonly called morning glory. It is a vine, and 
a great runner — many colours. Convolvulus minor, called 
beauty of the nighty because it blossoms at evening — many 
colours. They are much admired. The seed must be sown 
early in the spring. 

CoRCHORus Japonicus. — Tliis shrub, although cultivated 
as a green-house plant, will thrive in a warm, sheltered place 
in a garden. It produces numerous flowers of a golden 
yellow, in wreaths, much admired. 

Crocus. — K bulbous-rooted plant — -hardy — very early — 
various colours ; as blue, white, purple, yellow, &c. Ap- 
pears to advantage in small pots. Propagated by the bulbs. 

Cupid's car, or Monk's hood — Aconiium napellas—is a 



FLOWERS. 



beautiful, hardy perennial. It produces many neat, blue 
flowers, both in summer and autumn. It is propagated by 
dividing the roots. 

Dahlia. — This is a beautiful autumnal flowering plant, 
a native of Mexico. There are many varieties, single and 
double, and of almost every colour and shade. Dahlias 
will grow in almost any soil, but a poor, sandy, or gravelly 
soil is thought best, for the purpose of preventing them from 
growing too luxuriant, v/hich would be the case if planted 
in a rich soil. In a poor soil they produce a greater abun- 
dance of flowers. They are propagated by seed and by 
dividing the roots. 

The seed may be sown in March, in pots, and placed in 
a hot-bed, or green-house. About the middle of May, or 
when there is no danger from frost, plant them out in the 
borders, or wherever they are to stand, and, as they advance 
in height, let them be v/ell supported by stakes, otherv/ise 
the wind will break them down. 

The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato, and 
should be taken up in October or November, and preserved 
through the v/inter in a box filled with, dry sand, placed 
where the frost never penetrates. Towards the end of 
April, or when they begin to sprout, divide the roots, and 
plant them where they are to stand, taking care to cover 
them in case of frost. Plant only those that have a bud, 
and be careful that it is not hurt by dividing the roots. The 
plants soon shoot up to considerable height, and produce 
a great abundance of flowers. The plants must be well 
supported by slender stakes. They are said to do well if 
planted in large pots. 

Daisy — Bellis — is a small, delicate, perennial plant, and 
produces beautiful little flowers. It is hardy, and well 
calculated for pots, placed in the sitting room ; in which 
case they will flower in the winter. It is propagated by 
offsets. 

Dwarf Basil — Ocymum iimihnum—h a sv/eet, fragrant, 
annual plant, easily raised by seed. But few plants 
exceed this in fra2:rance. 

Egg plant. — This is a singular, annual plant. The 
white ( Solanum melongena ) is the most unique, producing a 
fruit resembling a large white egg. The seed should be 
planted early, in a hot-bed, and after the frosts have gone 
past, transplant them where it is desired they should 
stand. 

Eupatorium, blue — Eupatorium ccdestinum — is a peren- 



120 



FLOWERS. 



nial plant,producing many beautiful flowers, much admired. 
Propagated best by dividing the roots. 

Euphorbia lathyris — is a biennial plant, commonly 
called the caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage, and 
bears a small fruit useful for pickling. It is rather tender, 
but will stand the winter very well in a common hot-bed. 
It is raised from seed. 

Fading beauty, or morning bride — Scabiosa atropvj-- 
purea — is an annual plant, producing beautiful flowers ; but 
they soon fade, continuing only an hour or two. The seed 
should be planted early in the spring. 

Fir — Pinus balsamea — is not a flowering tree, but it is a 
beautiful evergreen, and very ornamental. 

Foxglove — Digitalis — is a biennial and perennial plant, 
and produces very handsome flow^ers. There are several 
species, but the purple is the most beautiful. The seed is 
very small, and ought to be sown early in the spring, and 
very lightly covered with earth. The plant possesses high 
medicinal virtues. 

Fringe-tree — Chionanthes — a beautiful American shrub, 
covered w^ith white flowers in its season. It is hardy, and 
will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground. 

Geranium. — Pelargonium. — This plant w-ants hardiness 
only to make it one of the finest and most vali:«ble produc- 
tions in the floral kingdom. There are many varieties. 
S-ome give us flower with little or no leaf ; others possess 
beauty of leaf, as well as of flower ; some give us no fra- 
grarxce ; but others give us the most delightful odours, and 
in great profusion. The geranium is a native of the south 
of Africa, and will not endure the frost. It is easily propa- 
gated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old w^ood or 
young, and placed in a pot. In a gTcen-house, they will 
bloom throughout a northern winter. They are, properly, 
green-house plants. There is one, how^ever, which is as 
hardy as an oak tree, geranium maculatuin^ producing a blue 
flower. It is possessed of great medicinal powers. 

Garden Angelica — Angelica archangelica — has a bold 
appearance w^hen in flower. It is suitable for a border, and 
very showy. It is propagated by seed. It is a perennial 

Glycine, cluster-flowering — Glycine frutescens — is a 
perennial vine, and will extend on the side of a house or 
wall to great length. It is much admired. The flowers 
are variegated. Propagated by seed and from layers. 

Golden coreopsis. — Coreopsis elegans, — This is an an- 
nual plant, and produces a profusion of splendid flowers of 



FLOWERS. 



121 



a brilliant yellow, with rich purple centre. It is easily 
raised from the seed. 

Golden everlasting — Xeranthemum lucidum — is a very 
singular plant, and produces bright yellow flowers, which, 
if plucked before the seed ripens, will hold their brightness 
for years. It is much admired. The seed should be 
planted early, as the plant will flower late in the season. 

Hollyhock. — AlthcBa. — This is a showy plant for a 
shrubbery. It is hardy and perennial. There are various 
kinds ; single and double, white, red, yellow, black, and 
variegated. 

Honeysuckle. — This plant is very beautiful in its place; 
it climbs up houses, and over hedges : it forms arbours and 
bowers : it blooms in clusters. Three varieties we shall 
name. The Italian (Lonicera Italica) produces an abun- 
dance of flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich 
fragrance all around. The flowers are changeable. The 
variegated (Lonicera caprifolium) blooms monthly, and has 
a delightful fragrance. The scarlet trumpet (Caprifolirm 
sempervirens) blooms monthly, — scarlet flowers, — and makes 
a beautiful appearance. They may be propagated by seed 
or cuttings, but best by layers. 

Hyacinth. — Hyacinthus orientalis, — This is a bulbous- 
rooted plant, and, like all other plants of this class, is peren- 
nial. It is a beautiful and fragrant flower ; it blooms early. 
It will bloom in glasses filled with water in a room, but 
better in pots of earth. It is best propagated by offsets. 
While the parent root is blowing, it sends out several young 
ones. They should be planted at the depth of four inches. 
There are many varieties of this favourite flower, both sin- 
gle and double ; the former have the most vivid colours, 
but the latter are generally preferred. Such was the rage 
in Holland for this superb flower, that, .in the year 1771, 
four thousand dollars were refused for a single bulb. 

Hydrangea — Hydrangea hortensis — is a small shrub, and 
produces very large flowers, which are changeable. The 
flowers are at first green — change gradually to rose-colour — 
then to green — occupying the space of about six months. It 
is a house-plant ; will bear some frost ; but must be kept 
during the winter in a green-house, sitting-room, or cellar, 
into which some light is admitted. This ornamental shrub 
is easily propagated by cuttings. 

Ice-plant — Mesemhryantheum crystallinum — is an annual 

plant, and has an icy appearance. It is singular. The 

seed should be planted in pots early in the spring. ^ 
1 1 



22 



FLOWERS. 



liWATiENs EALSAMiNA. — A vciy fine annual plant, with 
great abundance of showy flowers. There are several va- 
rieties, both single and double, rose-coloured, red, purple, 
pure white, variegated and crimson. The flowers are ele- 
gantly formed, and the colours of many are very vivid. The 
plant is commonly called balsaviine. It will bloom in July, 
and continue in flov^^r until the frost appears. The seed 
should be sov/n in May. 

Iris, or fleur de luce. — This is a perennial plant, per- 
fectly hardy. There are many varieties, both large and 
small. From its great combination of colours, and unique 
appearance, it has ever had admirers. It shows to advan- 
tage in a border. It is propagated by dividing the roots. 

Lagentrcenlv Indica. — A flowering shrub, which en- 
dures the winter of the Middle and Southern States. In 
Massachusetts, it must be treated like the hydrangea, but 
its beauty will repay this attention. 

Laurel, broad-leaved — Kalmia laiifolia — -is an ever- 
green shrub, vv^hich produces flowers of great delicacy and 
beauty, being white, tinged with red. This ornamental 
shrub is occasionally found in rocky woodlands. 

Laburnum — Cytisus laburnum — is a tall and handsome 
shrub, loaded, when in bloom, w4th yellow flowers. It is 
sometim.es called golden chain. It is tender, and to stand a 
Massachusetts winter must be planted in a v>^arm and shel- 
tered situation. It is raised from the seed. 

Larkspur — Delphinium — is an annual plant of no fra- 
grance, but of great variety of colours. It makes a good 
appearance, and is easily propagated from the seed. 

Lilac. — Syringa vulgaris. — This is a large shrub, very 
hardy, and much admired when in bloom. It has large 
bunches of flowers, which possess considerable fragrance. 
The white and the purple may be easily grafted, or innocu- 
lated into each other, and when the shrub, with a handsome 
head, is thus managed, som^e branches producing purple, 
and others white flowers, it makes a beautiful appearance. 
It is propagated from suckers, of which it sends out too many, 
and from which it should be kept as clear as possible. The 
Persian lilac (Syringa Persica) is a neat shrub, loaded, 
w^hen in bloom, with very delicate flowers. It is propa- 
gated by suckers. 

Lily. — Liltum. — Of this plant there is a great variety; 
but only a few shall be named. — The white (Lilium candi- 
dum) grows to the height of three or four feet, and produces 
very large, white, fragrant flowers. The Tiger {LUium 



FLOWERS. 



123 



tigrinum) grows to the height of from four to six feet, and 
produces many spotted flowers of a bold appearance. The 
Martagon is much like the latter, except the plant and 
flowers are more delicate. All these are bulbous-rooted, 
and are best propagated from offsets. The asphodel (Li/i- 
um luteum) grov/s to the height of two feet, and produces 
beautiful yellow flowers. It is propagated by seed or off- 
sets. All the above-named lilies are well calculated to 
beautify a border. The lily of the valley {Convallaria 
majalis) is a small dwarf plant, that thrives best in the 
shade, where it produces little delicate flov/ers of exquisite 
fragrance. Propagated by offsets. 

Lime-plant. — This plant [Podophyllum peltatiim) is a sin- 
gular production of nature. The stem, foliage, flower, and 
fruit, are formed in the earth ; and, after the plant has come 
up, there is nothing more than the extension of parts. The 
stems, at the height of from eight to twelve inches, branch 
out in two arms ; at the extremity of each is a large palmat- 
ed leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit stem. The first that 
is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which 
is soon burst open by the flovv^er-bud, which is large, white, 
and round. The shoulders and arms, lying close to the 
stem or trunk, soon appear, and, as the plant rises, the fruit 
stem elongates, and the arms elevate themselves. The 
fruit is about the size of a large lime, green while growing, 
and yellow when ripe ; has the flavour of a pine-apple ; 
and, as to eating, is but little inferior to that fruit. The 
plant requires a moist soil in a shady situation — may be 
propagated by seed, but best by dividing the roots, which 
are creeping and jointed. The root is medicinal. 

Lychnadia — Phlox — is a perennial — several varieties ; as 
purple, white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, and pro- 
duces many delicate flowers, and is long in bloom. It is 
best propagated by dividing the roots. 

Mezereon — Daphne mezereim — is a small, beautiful 
shrub, blooming in the month of March, loaded with flow- 
ers of delightful fragrance. It is hardy as a shrub oak, and 
is propagated from the seed. It produces a red fruit, which 
is poisonous. 

Mountain ash — Sorbus aucuparia — is a very ornamental 
tree, admired for the beauty of its foliage, and its clusters 
of scarlet fruit, which remain on it for months. It is prop- 
agated from the seed. 

Musk geranium — Geranium moschatum — is an annual 
plant, and is admired only for its strong flavour of musk. 



124 



FLOWERS. 



The plant will stand the winter in a common hot-bed, and 
in this case may be considered biennial. The seed must 
be planted early. 

Myrtle, evergreen — Vinca minor — is an evergreen 
vine, producing blue flowers. There are several species, 
and all neat and pretty in their place. 

Narcissus — a bulbous-rooted plant, managed precisely 
like the hyacinth. It blooms early, is very beautiful, and 
is fragrant. This plant is hardy, and well calculated to 
bloom in a pot, in the green-house, or in a parlour. It is 
propagated by bulbous offsets, which increase every year. 
Polyanthos Narcissus and jonquils, both elegant flowering 
plants, are propagated and cultivated, in all respects, in the 
same manner. 

Nasturtium — an annual plant, with showy flowers. 
The seeds are enveloped in fleshy pods, which, before they 
become ripe, are excellent for pickling. The seed should 
be sown very early in the spring. The plants should be 
supported from the ground by bushy sticks. 

Passion-flower — Passiflora — is a perennial vine, which 
produces a very beautiful flower. The name originated 
from the large cross in the middle of the flower, surrounded 
by appendages resembling a glory. The plant is also beau- 
tiful ; and, like the honeysuckle, has a succession of flowers 
for a long time. It is tender, and suitable for the green- 
house. It will not endure a northern winter in open 
ground. It is best raised from cuttings. 

Pjsony — PcBonia — is a perennial, that has a very grand 
flower, but of short duration. There are several species 
much admired. Propagated from offsets. 

Pea, sweet. — Lathyrus odoratus, — There are many spe 
cies as to colour and fragrance. These are annual. The 
everlasting pea {Lathyrus latifolius) is perennial, and pro- 
duces many clusters of showy flowers, and remains in 
bloom a long time. The seed should be planted early 
in the spring. 

Peach, double-flowering. — This is a very showy tree ; 
its flowers are as double and as large as the smaller sorts 
of roses — hardy, and treated like other peach-trees. 

Pink — Dianthm — is a perennial plant, too well known 
to be described here. There are many kinds, as to size 
and colour, but all are fragrant. They are desirable articles 
for a flower-garden, and are easily propagated by seed, by 
layers, and by dividing the roots. 

Perennial sunflower, double — Helianthm mdtijhnuB 



FLOWERS. 125 

— is a fine plant to beautify a border — propagated by seed, 
or by dividing the roots. 

PoLYANTHos. — This perennial plant {Primula polyan- 
thos) is hardy, has many showy flowers, and is much es- 
teeined. There are many varieties. The plant blooms 
best in a sliady situation. It is best propagated by dividing 
the i jots. Polyanthos Narcissus is a very pretty perennial, 
well calculated to bloom in a parlour, it is bulbous-rooted, 
and easily propagated by oiisets. 

Pyrethrum Part!ieniu?.t, commonly called double fe- 
verfew, is a hardy perennial, and produces an abundtince 
of white flowers, and continues in bloom a long time. It 
is easily propagated by the seed. 

Poppy — Papavcr — is an annual plant, admired for its 
great variety in size and in flower. The double are very 
showy, but, like beauty, soon fade. It is a medicinal 
plant, and easily cultivated. 

Purple hyacinth bean — Dolichos — is an annual run- 
ner, producing large clusters of purple flowers, much ad- 
mired. The seed should be planted early, and the plants 
defended from the frost. 

Rose. — Rosa.-^Tlns favourite flower is worthy of all 
the care and attention that can be paid to it. There are 
many varieties, as to size, singularity, foliage, beauty, and 
fragrance. Some catalogues enumerate more than five 
hundred varieties. Messrs. G. Thorburn & Son have a 
splendid collection in their green-house, Liberty Street, 
New York. No class of plants yields more intrinsic de- 
lights than this. It is unrivalled. To describe the beauties 
and excellence of the various species w^ould All a volume. 

They may be propagated from seed, but, as the seed sel- 
dom comes up till the second year, the usual mode of 
propagation is by suckers, which come out near the old 
stems, durino; the summer. The suckers, v/hen planted 
out, shonld be cut dov.'n to four or Ave inches of the ground. 
The time for planting is either in the months of October 
and November, or in April. As to the management, the 
ground should be kept good, and dug every autumn. They 
should, except when trained against a wall, be kept cut 
down to a certain height, according to their natural size ; 
for when they get long stems and limbs, they produce few- 
er flowers. All the weak, dead or dying wood should be 
pruned out close, w^ithout leaving any ugly stubs. " The 

yellov/ rose requires an airv situation and a gravelly soil, 
11* 



126 



and that, every autumn, one half of the old wood should 
be cut down within four inches of the ground; by this 
means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots will be 
kept up. 

The Chinese monthly roses are propagated by cuttings, 
taken in the spring, and properly placed in moist earth. 
These are generally tender, and require to be taken into a 
green-house or parlour during the winter. There are some, 
however, that are very hardy, and bid defiance to the frost. 
The writer of this article has a Chinese pale-red, monthly 
rose, which has stood out for several years, being only cov- 
ered with a box, during the severity of the winter. It is 
now February 28, 1828, and the foliage is yet bright, al- 
though it has been frozen many times, during the present 
winter. The thermometer, however, has not been lower, 
the present season, than one degree above zero." 

Rose acacia — Robinia hispida — is a singular shrub, pro- 
ducing many clusters of flowers, much admired. Propa- 
gated by shoots from the roots. 

Rose-coloured hibiscus — Hibiscus paliistris — is a per- 
ennial plant, producing very showy flowers — makes a good 
appearance in a border. Easily propagated from the seed. 

RuDBECKiA — a perennial plant, producing many flowers, 
which are very durable and much admired. Propagated 
best by dividing the roots. 

Scarlet cACALiA — Cacalia coccinea — is a small annual 
plant, which produces numerous scarlet flowers, very showy. 
Easily raised from the seed. 

Scarlet lychnis — Lychnis chalcedonica — is a perennial 
plant. There are two varieties, the single and the double. 
The single is pretty, but the double is splendid. The for- 
mer is propagated from seed, and the latter by dividing the 
roots. 

Siberian crab. — This is a small tree, esteemed for its 
large, fragrant flowers, and for its small fruit. The Pyrus 
prmifolia produces a beautiful longish fruit. The Pyrus bac^ 
cataj or cherry crab, bears a beautiful round fruit. The 
Pyrus spectabilisj or Chinese double blossom, has the most 
beautiful flowers of the family. They are all delicate in 
form and flower. 

Snow-ball tree — Virburnum opulus — is a beautiful 
shrub, especially when in bloom. It is propagated by 
suckers. 

Snowberry — Symphoria racemosa — is a small shrub, 



FLOWERS. 



127 



which produces clusters of white fruit in autumn, and is 
oniamental. Propagated best by suckers. 

Spice-wood — Laurus benzoin — is a very fragrant shrub, 
of medicinal virtues. It grows best in the shade, and 
surnetimes bears a long, green, spicy fruit. It is propagated 
by suckers. 

SiMDE.ivYORT — Tradescautia — is a singular perennial plant, 
which is in bloom for a long time. The blue is more ad- 
mired than the white. It requires a light covering dnrmg 
the severity of winter ; and is propagated by dividing the 
roots. 

SpiRiEA. — This is a small shrub, loaded with delicate 
flowers in the season of its blooming. Propagated by 
suckers. • 

Syuinga, or Mock orange. — A shrub, which has flowers 
much like those of the orange. It makes a prelly appear- 
ance with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers. 

Strawberry tree — Euonymus — is a very handsome 
shrub, producing, in autumn, an abundance of fruit, some- 
what resembling the strawberry. The European is pre- 
ferred to the American. It has been called the burning 
bush^ from its appearance when loaded with ripe fruit. It 
is propagated by seed and by suckers. 

Sweet bay — Laurus nobilis — is a very pretty evergreen 
shrub, well calculated to stand (in a large pot) in the par- 
lour during winter. Propagated by suckers. 

Sweet William, or Poetic viNK—Dianthus barbatus — is 
an imperfect perennial, producing very handsome flowers of 
small size. It is propagated by seed, the plants of which 
do not produce flowers like those of the parent plant, ex- 
cept by chance. It may be propagated by dividing the 
roots. 

Tulip. — Tulipa. — In no family of plants has Nature so 
varied her delicate tints as in this. There are more than 
six hundred varieties of this splendid flower cultivated in 
the Linniean Garden on Lonp^ Island. During the tulip 
fever, which raged in Holland, about the middle of the 
seventeenth century, some splendid varieties were sold for 
enormous sums of money ; one of which, called the vice- 
roi^ brouprht ten thousand dollars. 

The tulip may be raised from seed ; but it is, as in the 
case of the auricula, mere chance if one be obtained, that 
w^ill produce flowers like those of the parent plant. They 
are best propagated by the bulbs. 

There is something respecting thi« plant astonishing. 



128 



FRUITS. 



After flowering, the foliage and roots decay, and a hulh or 
bnlhs are formed of the juices of the old. plant. A bulb 
contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon becomes 
as much disengaged from the decayed parent plant, as the 
ripe acorn is disengaged from its parent tree. At ihls time, 
they may be carried (like many other bulbs) any length 
of distance in dry moss or dry sand. They should be plant- 
ed out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil, 
in August or September ; after which they throw out roots, 
and prepare for an early appearance in the ensuing spring. 
If the bulbs be kept through the winter, and planted in the 
spring, they do not thrive that season. The nice varieties 
should be taken up after the decay of the old plants, every 
year, air-dried, and kept until September <|p October, a.nd 
then planted. 

Venitian sumach, or Fringe tree — Rhus cotlnus — is a 
very singular and beautiful tree, which is loaded during 
summxcr with tufts of russet-coloured down, and forms the 
most singular ornament of the garden." It has been called 
the smoke tree. Propagated by layers and by suckers. 

Violet, blue, fragrant. — This little plant ( Viola odo- 
rata) is perennial ; the ilovvers blue, double and flagrant. 
It blooms early in the season, and continues in flower for 
some time. " It is of considerable use in chymical inqui- 
ries, to detect an acid or an alkali; the former changing 
the blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green." It is 
best propagated by dividing the roots, which spread very 
much. 

FRUITS. — The following was written for this work, at 
the request of the compiler, by a distinguished member of 
the Massachusetts Agricultural Society : — 

Under the titles of each species of fruits, we have 
treated of their culture, and general character : this article 
will be devoted, exclusively, to the selection of the most 
approved sorts of each species of fruits. Nothing can be 
more annoying, nothing more embarrassing to those, who 
are desirous of making valuable collections of fruit-trees, 
without any previous personal experience, than the inter- 
minable lists, and the indiscriminate praise bestowed by 
nursery men. V/e blame them not — it is their business 
and their profit — the greater the variety of new names, 
the greater the sale. Yet it is true, that of the 150 varie- 
ties of apples, and the equally great number of pears — of 
the vast collections of peaches and cherries, there are 
but a fev/ which are of superior quality, and these few 



129 



*udicioi:slv selected, will amply suffice for all the wants of 
"private families. For the market-gardener in the vicinity 
of great cities, a more ample list may be of great use and 
profit. So, also, the amateur of great fortune may be desi- 
rous, as a matter of curiosity, of having in his possession 
every known variety. Yet he will acknowledge, after all, 
that, if he cannot sell them, seven eighths of the whole 
number will perish, because better fruits are in eating at 
the same time. How few apples and pears can be dispos- 
ed of by a private family during the period when the 
peaches are in perfection ! The famous Duhamel, the 
greatest cultivator and writer on fruit-trees in any country 
or age, after devoting two quarto volumes in describing all 
the fruits of France known in his day, terminates by giving 
a list of forty or fifty sorts which would sufiice for the lux- 
ury of any private man. It is our purpose to make a 
selection, we will not say of the hest^ — for as the tastes of 
men differ, it would be arrogant to say this, — but of what 
we esteem the best, and which are most generally esteem- 
ed, adding something of the qualities of each. We shall 
introduce them in the order of ripening. 

Apples. — Juneting or Jenneting, — This is the earliest ap- 
ple of our country, and is very pleasant and valuable for 
its quality of early ripening. It is fit for apple-sauce on 
the 20th of June, and for eating early in July. 

Early summer j^eamain.— This is said to be one of the 
finest summer apples ; is of a reddish colour, fit for the table 
and for cooking ; it has the desirable quality of flourishing 
in light and sandy soils ; ripens the first of August. 

The codling. — This is a favourite apple in England for 
pics and stewing ; is fit for this use in August, and lasts till 
October. 

Siberian crab, — This apple is remarkable for its beauty. 
It makes a beautiful preserve, to be used in winter. One 
small tree will suffice for a family. It is ripe in August, 
and should be preserved before it becomes mealy. 

Monstrous pippin, — This is an enormous apple, of tran- 
sient duration, but of good flavour. One tree would suffice. 
It is a small bearer, but as a cooking apple it is valuable ; 
ripens in October. 

Pomme d?api^ or lady apple, — This is a beautiful little 
apple; a constant bearer; an ornament to the dessert, from 
November to April. It is pleasant to the taste, but its 
principal value is its ornament to the table. One tree 
will suffice. 



130 



FRUITS. 



Doctor apple. — It is a large and handsome fruit, high- 
ly esteemed; ripens in October, and keeps for some 
months. 

Bell-flower. — This apple we can decidedly recommend, 
from twenty years' trial. It is a great bearer — beautiful 
bright yellow : it is fit for cooking and for the table ; ripens 
in November, and will keep till March. Its skin is so 
tender, that it must be gathered with great care, and put 
up with equal tenderness. It is the most popular apple in 
Philadelphia, and w^ould be so here, if its merits, and its 
careful management in putting it up, were generally known. 
It is a vigorous and healthy tree. 

Rihstone pippin. — This is a celebrated English apple, of 
fine flavour, and some beauty. It will keep from November 
to February. It has the pippin texture, is rather a shy 
bearer, and ought not to be cultivated extensively : but one 
or two trees would reward the cultivator. 

The two Spitzenhergs — the Newton and Esopus. — These 
. are American fruits, of the very finest quality, keeping 
sound, and retaining their flavour till May, from December. 
They bear every year^ though, like all others of this class, 
they have tlieir full and their scanty years of bearing. It 
is however admitted, that they are declining, not in good- 
ness, but in fertility. On new lands they may do well for 
fifty years more. 

The Baldwin apple^ formerly called the Pecker apple. — 
This is probably a Massachusetts production, originating in 
the county of Middlesex. It is now in its prime ; a 
healthy tree; an enormous bearer; bearing every other 
year, and in the interm^ediate one not producing an apple ; 
for beauty, richness, and other fine qualities, not yielding 
to any apple in the world, except the American apple called 
the Newtown pippin. It is in eating from December to 
the first of April. 

The Newtown pippin. — This is a New Jersey production ; 
the finest apple in our country. It flourishes vAih us, but 
its fruit is not so fine as those grown in New Jersey. In 
some situations it however succeeds almost as well as in 
New Jersey, and is well worthy of a place in every garden, 
as its fruit will keep till May. 

The Roxbury russeting. — This is a standard natural fruit 
of Massachusetts. Every other year it is a great bearer. 
Its fruit is pleasant for the table from January to July, 
if kept in a cold place. We add nothing further in favo^ 
of the Roxbury russeting, because its great merits for our 



131 



climate are well known. We can find no reason to be- 
lieve that it was ever knov/n in any other country. 

Rhoile Island greening. — This, too, seeras to be a Yankee 
production, and a most valuable tree it is. It bears in al- 
ternate years. It is too great a bearer. The tree is 
inclined to bend down, and bear low. This fault should 
be corrected. It is principally valuable as a cooking apple, 
in which respect it is superior to any other. For the table 
it is good only when better fruit cannot be had. 

Gardner^ sweetina- — This is the most valuable of all the 
apples for baking, it bears in alternate years. It will 
keep till April, but it is prone to rot. 

There are a great variety of sweet apples for summer 
and winter use, and many fine varieties of winter apples, 
which we have omitted. Every one knows the nonesuch^ 
and the pearniaiiij superior to almost any in our list, 
but both appear to us to be on the decline, though we rec- 



ommend their culture, on a small scale, to all who have 

being 



extent of ground 



our object being simply to select for 
small cultivators the most approved varieties. Coxe, 
of New Jersey, the earliest and most extensive cultivator 
on a great scale, has recommended the following selection 
of apples ; and in his judgment we place great reliance : — 



Juneting", ripens in June and July. 
Prince's harvest.. 
Bough apple, 
Early pearmain. 
Summer rose, 
Codling, 
Maiden's blush, 
HaHoe's crab, 
Catline, 
Rambo, 
Fall pippin, 
Doctor apple, 



July, 
do. 

August.^ 

do. 
September, 
do. 
do. 
do. 
October, 
do. 
do. 



ripens m 
Late pearmain. 



Wim 

Bell-flower. 
Newark pippin. 
Pennock. - 
Michael Henry, 
Spitzenberg. 
Newtown pippin. 
Priestley. 
Pomme d'api. 
Car-house. 



November, 
do. 



November. 



We think our 
thern States. 
Pears. — Petit 



own selection preferable for these Nor- 
those who wish to have 



Muscat, — To 

the earliest possible ripe pear, this insignifii^ant but prema- 
ture pear may be desirable. 

Rouselet hatif. — This pear is beautiful, and highly fla- 
voured, and one small tree is all that any cultivator would 
desire. We know it b}^ the name of Catherine, or, as it is 
pronounced, Kaltern. 

Madeleine^ or green chissell. — This is a fine summer pear. 

Skinless pear^ or blanquette d longue queue^ is a delicious, 
but short-lived pear. 
"^Epargne is a pleasant pear. 



132 



FRUITS. 



Red hergamot is a beautiful pear of the flavour of the 
bergamots. 

The real Jargonelle is one of the finest summer pears. 
It is a great and constant bearer, and comes in between the 
smaller fruits of the garden, the strawberry and raspberry, 
and the peach. As seen in Boston market, it is a carica- 
ture of the fruit raised by the cultivator for his own use. 
It is gathered unripe, and artificially ripened by being put 
up in great masses. 

The summer good Christian is a luscious and juicy pear, 
but it is scarcely possible to raise it in the country, being 
subject to spots and cracks. 

Salviatij ripening early in August, is a delicious pear in 
good soils : in poor land it is of no value. 

Broca'^s hergamot is one of the finest pears grown in shel- 
tered situations ; but in exposed ones, its leaves fall, and 
its fruit is acid. 

The grey beurre^ the prince of pears in Boston, and in 
the sheltered gardens of France, is of no value in the coun- 
try, unless on walls, or in gardens sheltered by walls or 
hills. 

. Seckle pear, — This is the greatest acquisition yet made 
to the list of pears for New England culture. It is hardy, 
bears every year, is subject to no casualty, and its flavour, 
to most persons, is the finest of any pear yet known. It 
lasts about six weeks, from Sept. 15th to Nov. 1st. It is 
supposed to be a native. No man should be without three 
or four of them. 

Moor-fowl egg, — This pear ripens in November ; is deli- 
cious, though of a peculiar flavour. 

There is a variety of this pear, which is striped, in the 
garden of John C. Gray, Esq., at Cambridge. 

The St. MichaeVs pear^ by the French called Doyenne, — 
This pear was, till lately, the pride of our gardens. Beau- 
tiful beyond any other pear, melting, and extremely sweet, 
it bore the palm of all autumnal pears. Causes unknown 
have, for ten successive years, blighted its fruit ; yet we 
advise the continued culture of it, because we have seen 
the peach, after fifteen years of failure, resume its wonted 
fertility and vigour. 

3Iessire Jean. — This is an admirable pear ; hardy, pro- 
lific, of a breaking texture, extremely sweet, and ripening 
in November and December. It seems to us to be rather 
on the decline, but, in new gardens, it may revive. 

The Amory^ or Gibson^ or Andrews pear. — These various 



FRUITS. 



133 



names are only given because we are ignorant of the real 
name. It is a European pear, unquestionably, and the 
new names are only given to the same tree, because the 
same identical tree has had, in the same garden, three suc- 
cessive owners. 

It is a very fine, but transient pear, of beautiful form, and 
excellent qualities, ripening in September, which lessens 
its value. 

The Bergamotte Cressanne, — This pear, in perfection, 
though rather austere, has all the high flavour of the berga- 
mot family ; but it is more apt to crack than any other 
pear whatever. The writer of this article, after twenty 
years' trial, has been compelled to regraft them all. It will 
not suit the country, unless sheltered. 

The Virgalouse, — This, one of the finest pears of France, 
is subject to the same evil as the foregoing, and we sol- 
emnly warn the cultivators in the country not to try it 
unless they have terraces or walls. 

The Colmar. — The same remarks will apply to this pear 
also. We speak from long experience, and from the expe- 
rience of other eminent cultivators. We must not listen to 
French or American writers. This pear is not suited, with 
us, but to the city, or to the opulent cultivators, who make 
an artificial shelter for their trees either by walls, or build- 
ings, or terraces. 

The St, Germain, — This most noble variety of the pear 
family succeeded as well in the country as in town dur- 
ing the first twenty years of our knowledge of it, but it has 
failed during nearly fifteen years. It has seemed to be 
recovering, and we should advise the continued culture of 
it for a few years longer, as it is superior to any pear except 
the following. 

The Ambrette, — This pear was introduced into this state 
in 1812. Mr. Coxe, who sent it here, called it the Am- 
brette. It is an ordinary pear in its appearance ; a strong, 
vigorous, great-bearing tree. Not knowing its character, it 
was first eaten as soon as it was soft ; but accident obliging 
us to keep it longer, it proved to be one of the best win- 
ter pears grown in our climate. It has high praise in 
France. Its merit with us, however, is, that it bears our 
climate perfectly. One small tree, imported in 1812, bore 
five barrels of fruit in 1816. 

Of the baking pears there are many varieties : — 
The pound pear is a great bearer, and makes a valuable 
baking and stewing pear. 



134 



FKUITS. 



The iron pear^ so called in this vicinity, is nearly as 
valuable, as the fruit is nov^^ Kound in the month of April. 

The Catillac is also valuable from the same qualities, and 
is much more beautiful. 

The Spanish good Christian is also a great bearer, and 
fitted for the same purposes. 

We may now add the valuable varieties of pears sent to 
this country by Mr. Knight, with m.any more introduced 
by that indefatigable and most successful cultivator of 
fruits in New England, Samuel G. Perkins, Esq. of Brook- 
line, to whom our northern horticulture is deeply indebted 
for his liberal dissemination of his new and valuable 
varieties. 

Mr. Knight's trees are all of them entirely new ^ not, as 
has been supposed, produced by him, but principally by Mr. 
Van Mods, of the Netherlands. The new kinds, thus in- 
troduced, are as follows : — 

Cassiomont. — This pear has borne fruit. It ripens in 
September — is of a fair size, beautiful to the eye, and deli- 
cious to the taste ; well a^dapted to supply the place of the 
St. MichaeVs^ should it fail us. 

Napoleon^ said to ripen in October, is described as a fine 
fruit — has not borne in this country. 

Marie Louise is equally recommended — ripening in 
October — is showing abundance of fruit the present 
year. 

Biierre Knox showed its fruit in 1826 — a beautiful and 
large pear, of buttery texture, ripening in October — is also in 
fruit this year. 

Tilllngton — praised as a beautiful fruit — not in bearing. 

Passe Colniar — a late ixuit — not in bearing. 

Cohnar d'^hyver — a late fruit — not in bearing. 

Harden pont de Printems — showing fruit this year, and 
presumed to be the best fruit of the pear kind for our cli- 
ma,te — ripening in April and May. 

Poire d'^ Ar ember g — also represented as an excellent 
pear. Mr. Perkins has also received many other new va- 
rieties, among which we recollect the Charles d^Autriche 
and the Sijhanche. 

The only object in introducing into this list these new- 
varieties, is to say, that though vre have distributed several 
thousand scions and buds, and although we have been rob- 
bed of many more, yet we have so many nourishing shoots, 
that we shall be able to furnish as many buds the ensuing 
season, and grafts the stason following, as we huve ever 



FRUITS. 



135 



been able to do, having kept the trees in a bush state, to 

encourage the growth of shoots for cultivation. 

Peaches. — This class of fruits is so natural to our 
country, that a great variety, unknown to European culti- 
vators, are found, of very considerable merit. We shall 
therefore take notice of the varieties only more particularly 
distinguished. 

The two varieties of nutmeg peaches have no merit what- 
ever, except their great precocity. The earliest peach of 
any value is the early Anne^ a white and very tolerable 
peach. 

The red Magdalen, 



The white Magdalen, 
The royal Kensington, 
The alberge, 
The swalsh, 
The noblesse. 



The admirable, 
The old Newington, 
The teton de Venus, 
Jaques' rareripe. 



These we can recommend as excellent fruits. There 
are many others of excellent quality, both foreign and 
native ; but these will surHce for a moderate-sized 
garden. 

There are a great variety of native peaches, the value of 
which is often as great as that of any peaches which have 
names, particularly of those which have a yellow flesh. 
The yellow-fleshed peaches are more apt to propagate their 
like from the stone than any other peaches. 

The nectarine. — Though this fruit is nothing but a smooth 
peach, yet it is far more tender, and requires either a wall, 
or a fence, or the side of some building, to protect it. The 
varieties are not numerous. The best are, 

fleshed 5 ripens in September. 
Late Newington 3 rich and melt- 
ing 5 September. 
Red Roman 5 a beautiful and 
highly flavoured variety. 



The Elruge ; ripens in August. 

The whhe j a beautiful fruit 3 — 
September. 

Lewis's nectarine, a Boston pro- 
duction 5 beautiful 3 yellow- 



There are seven or eight others, but these v/e recom- 
mend. 

The apricot, — This requires some shelter also ; should be 
planted in a yard, or on the south side of a building ; if 
nailed to it as an espalier, the better. The best are. 

The Breda, | The Brussels, | The Moor park, | The peach apricot. 

Cherry'. — The varieties are innumerable. For small 
gardens we recommend 



The May duke, for its earllness, 
The common white-heart ; 
The bigarou, or late white-heart, 
The early and the late black-heart, 



The black Tartarean, 
The red mazard new variety, Ccdled 
the Downer cherry. 



Mr Knight's new sorts are not yet tested here. 



136 



GARLICK. 



For pies and puddings, as 'well a.s for lateness, eve j 
garden should have a Morello, ^\hich is very juicj, 
though very acid. 

Plum. — The best plum known is the green gage, 
which the French call Reine Claude. Others of esteemed 
value are the 



Violet, 
Orleans, 
Fotheringham, 
Drop d'or, 



Coe's golden drop, 
Red imperial, 
White imperial, 
La royale. 



Berries. — The English garden mulberry is a highly 
esteemed fruit, but it is apt to be winter-killed in our cli- 
mate, unless in sheltered spots. 

Gooseberry, — This is a fine fruit, as brought to perfection 
in Great Britain. The varieties are almost infinite. The 
gardeners have given names to several hundred. The only 
direction should be to send the best Lancashire or Scotch 
gooseberries, of various colours. They are white, green, 
yellow, red, and dark purple. Some of the smaller sorts 
are better flavoin ed than any of the larger kin'ds. 

Currant, — There are but three sorts worth cultivation — 
the large Dutch while; the large Dutch red; and the 
Champaigne, or pink-coioured, as a variety. 

Raspberry, — There are only two sorts of any great value — 
the white Antwerp, and the red Antwerp. The cane, or 
smooth-stalked, is also praised by some persons, but we 
have had no success with it; it seems to us to be our native 
raspberry. 

Strawberry, — For the chief crop, the red and white 
Alpine are the most prolific : for show and flavour, the 
pine-apple, the roseberry, the scarlet or Virginia, and 
Knight's Downton, seem to us to include all that need be 
desired. Mr. Parmentier, of Long Island, has introduced a 
sort without runners, v/hich are said to bear twice. We 
have not seen them, though they are growing here. 

GARLICK. — Allium sativum, — Garlic is a hardy, peren- 
nial plant, with a bulbous root, which grows naturally in 
Sicily and the south of France. The leaves are linear, 
long and narrow. The bulb is composed of a dozen or fif- 
teen subordinate bulbs, called cloves. 

Culture, — Garlic is propagated by planting the cloves, 
or subdivisions of the bulbs, and prefers a " light, dry soil, 
rich, but not recently dunged. In February, March, or begin- 
Ding of April, having some large, full bulbs, divide them into 
separate cloves, and plant diem singly in beds, in row« 



GOOSEBERRY. 



13? 



lengthwise. Set them from six to nine inches asunder, two 
or three inches deep, either in drills or in holes made with a 
biimt-ended dibble. In placing the cloves in drills, thrust 
the bottom a little into the ground, and earth them over the 
proper depth." — Loudon. 

M'Mahon says, garlic, rocambole and shallots, may 
be planted in October or November, and observes, that, 
" vrhen planted at this season in dry, light, rich ground, the 
roots will be much larger than if deferred till spring." 

Taking the crop. — " The maturity of the bulbs is discov- 
erable by the leaves changing yellowish, in a decaying 
state; when they may be taken v/holly up. Continue the 
stalky part of the leaves to each root; spread them in the 
sun to dry and harden, and then lie them in bunches by the 
stalks, and house them, to keep for use as wanted : they 
v/ill remain good till the next spring and summer. If, in 
their advancing growth, some are required for present use, 
before attaining maturity, a fevv^ of the early planting may 
be drawn in May or June ; but permitting the general sup- 
ply to attain full growth as above." — Ahercromhie, 

Use. — It is used by many nations very extensively in 
cookery, both for seasoning and for food ; but not so much 
by the English or Americans for that purpose. " The med- 
ical properties of garlic are various. In dropsical com- 
plaints, asthmas, and agues, it is said to have been success- 
fully used. Some instances have occurred, in deafness, of 
the beneficial effects of wrapping a clove of garlic in muslin, 
and putting it into the ear. As a medicine internally taken, 
it is usually administered as a bolus, or made into pills. Its 
smell is considered as an infallible remedy against vapours, 
and as useful in nearly all the nervous disorders to which 
females are subject. An oil is sometimes prepared from 
garlic, which is so heavy as to sink in water ; but the vir- 
tues of this pungent vegetable 8.re more perfectly and more 
readily extracted by spirit of wine than in any other way. 
A syrup also is made of it. 

" The juice of garlic is said to be the best and strongest 
ceme^it that can be adopted for broken glass and china, 
■ saving, little or no mark if used with care. Snails, worm.s, 
and the grubs or larvse of insects, as well as moles and 
other vermin, may all be driven away by placing prepara- 
tions of garlic in or near their haunts." — Dom. Encyc. 

GOOSEBERRY.— i^iSes grossularia.—Th.e gooseberry 
is a natire of several parts of Europe, and is cultirated to 
great perfection in Lancashire, in England. Loudon savs, 
12^ 



GOOSEBERRY 



Happily, this wholesome and useful fruit is to be found in 
a] most every cottage garden in Britain, and it ought to be 
considered a part of every gardener's duty to encourage the 
introduction of its most useful varieties in these humble en- 
closures. In Lancashire and some of the adjoining coun- 
ties, almost every cottager, who has a garden, cultivates the 
gooseberry with a view to prizes, given at what are called 
gooseberry prize meetings ; of these there is annually pub- 
lished an account, with the names and weight of the suc- 
cessful sorts, in what is called the Manchester Gooseberry- 
Book, The prizes vary from 10 5. to £5 or 10 ; the sec- 
ond, third, to the sixth and tenth degrees of merit, receiv- 
ing often proportionate prizes. There are meetings held 
in th(i spring to ' make up,' as the term is, the sorts, the 
persons, and the conditions of the exhibition ; and in Au- 
gust, to w^eigh and taste the fruit, and determine the prizes." 

Varieties, — Loudon says, " The present lists of the Lon- 
don nursery-men contain from eighty to one hundred names ; 
but those of some of the Lancashire growers above three 
hundred. Forsyth, in 1800, mentions ten sorts as com- 
mon ; and adds a list of forty-three new sorts grown in 
Manchester." 

Propagation, — The gooseberry may be propagated by all 
the modes applicable to trees, or shrubs ; even by pieces 
of the roots ; but the mode by cuttings is usually adopted 
for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring 
them. 

By seeds, — So far as we know, the scientific mode of im- 
pregnating one variety with another has not been applied 
to this fruit. In general, the seed of some choice variety, 
thoro uglily ripe, is taken, and sovrn in autumn, or early in 
the spring, in beds or pots of rich, light, mellow earth : 
when the plants are a year old, they are planted out in 
nursery rows, to be cultivated and trained there a year or 
two : in general, they will bear the third year. 

By cuttings, — The best season for planting gooseberry 
cuttings is in autumn, just before the leaves begin to fall : 
early in the spring, as soon as the ground is sufficiently 
thawed, however, will answer nearly as well. The cut- 
tings should be taken from the bearing shoots. Cut them 
to such a length as the strength and ripeness of the wood 
will bear, and cut off all the buds except three, or at most 
four, at top. and train the plants with a single stem of nine 
inches or a foot high, from the top of which the branches 
should radiate upwards at an angle of 40^, or better if 45*. 



GOOSEBERRY, 



130 



Hay lies, an English writer, advises taking off cuttings in 
July, when the fruit is on the tree, in order to make sure 
of the sorts ; and says, hy immediate planting, watering, 
and shading, as good plants are produced as from ripe wood 
cuttings. 

Soil arid site. — Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom, 
and well manured, will suit the gooseberry. That which 
is soft and moist produces the largest fruit. The situation 
should not be under the drip of trees over-much shaded or 
confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavoured, and 
the plants apt to mildew. Forsyth says, gooseberries should 
be dunged every year, or at least have a good coat of dung 
once in two years. Haynes recommends a mixture of peat 
and loam well manured, and a shaded situation. The last 
he proposes to effect by planting, among his compartments 
of gooseberries, rows of Jerusalem artichokes in the direc- 
tion of east and west." — Loudon, 

Final planting. — " The season for planting gooseberries 
is any time during open weather, from October till March 
[or the 1st of April in New England]. When trees are 
procured from the public nurseries, choose such as are of 
some advanced size, about three years' growth, with pretty 
full heads, for immediate plentiful bearers. Let the gene- 
ral supply be in standard bushes, and planted principally 
in the kitchen-garden, in single rows, along the boundary 
edges of the main compartments. When the object is to 
raise large quantities of fruit, plantations are made in con- 
tinued parallel rows, eight or ten feet asunder, by six feet 
in the row. It would be eligible to plant a few sorts 
against south and other sunny walls, or paling, for earlier 
and larger fruit ; and on north walls to ripen late in suc- 
cession." — Abercrombie, 

Forsyth says, " The market-gardeners about London 
plant them in rows, from eight to ten feet apart from row 
to row, and six feet from plant to plant, in the rows. In 
small gardens I v/ould recommend planting them in a com- 
partment by themselves, at the distance of six feet between 
the rows, and four feet from plant to plant ; or you may 
plant them round the edges of the compartments, about 
three feet from the path ; you will then have the ground 
clear for cropping, and a man, by setting one foot on the 
border, can gather the gooseberries without injuring the 
crop." 

Neill says, ^' In some places, gooseberry-trees, on the 
sides of the borders, are trained to a single tall stem, which 



i40 



GOOSEBEE-KY. 



is tied to a stake ; this, though six or eight feet high, occa- 
sions scarcely any shade on the border, and it does not 
occupy much room, nor exclude air; Vv bile, at the same 
time, the stem becomes hung close with berries, and makes 
a pleasant appearance in that state." — Edin, Encyc, art. 
Horticulture. 

Mode Gj bearing. — ''The gooseberry produces its fruit not 
only on the shoots of last summer, and on shoots two or 
three years old, but also on spurs or snags arising from the 
eider branches along the sides ; but the former afford the 
largest fruit. The shoots retaiiied for bearers should, there- 
fore, be retained at full length, or nearly so.*' — AhercroivMe, 

Pruning. — '' The bushes will require a regular p- uning 
twice in the year." 

Summer pruning. — " Where any bushes are crowded with 
cross and water shoots of the same year, shading the fruit from 
the sun, and preventing the access of air, thin the heart of 
the plant and other tufted parts moderately, pinching off 
or cutting out close what spray is removed ; but do not 
touch the summer shoots in general." Maher says, " It 
will greatly contribute to the perfection of the fruit, if the 
very small berries are taken away with a pair of scissors, 
about the middle or end of May ; and these small berries 
will be found quite as good for sauce, or gooseberry-cream, 
as the larger." 

Winter pruning. — "You may proceed to the winter prun- 
hig any time from November until the end of February, 
9r until the buds are so swelled that further delay would 
endanger their being rubbed off in the operation. Cut out 
the cross-shoots and water-shoots of the preceding summer, 
and the superfluous among crowded branches. Prune long 
ramblers and low stragglers to some Vv^ell placed lateral or 
eye ; or, if an j^nder-straggler spring very lovv', cut it away. 
Of last year's shoots retain a sufficient quantity of laterals 
and terminals, in vacant parts, to form successional bearers, 
and to supply the places of unfruitful and decayed old 
wood, which, as you proceed, should be removed. Mostly 
retain a leading shoot at the end of a principal branch, 
leaving it either naturally terminal, or, where the branch 
would thus be too extended, pruning to some competent 
lateral within bounds. The supertluous young laterals on 
the good main branches, instead of being taken off clean, 
may be cut into little stubs of one or two eyes ; which will 
-nd out fruit-buds and spurs. Of the supply reserved for 
new bearers, a small number will probably tequire shorten- 



GOOSEBERRY. 



141 



ingj where too extended, or curvated ''^'^^^mmodiously ; leave 
' these from eight to twelve inches in leDgth, according to 
strength and situation ; those of moderate extent and 
regular growth will require very little shortening, and 
many none at all. Observe, too close cutting, or general 
shortening, occasions a great superfluity of wood in sum- 
mer ; for the multiplied laterals, thus forced from the eyes 
of the shortened branches, increase to a thicket, so as to re- 
tard the growth, and prevent the full ripening of the fruit : 
on which account it is an important part of pruning to keep 
the middle of the head open and clear, and to let the occa- 
sional shortening of the shoots be sparing and moderate. 
Between the bearing branches keep a regulated distance 
of at least six inches at the extremities, which will render 
them fertile bearers of good fruit. Some persons, not 
pruning the gooseberry-tree on right principles, are apt to 
leave the shoots excessively close and tufted, while they 
shorten the whole promiscuously ; others sometimes clip 
them with garden shears to close, round heads : in conse- 
quence of being pruned in these methods, the bushes shoot 
crowd edly, full of young wood in summer, from which the 
fruit is always very small, and does not ripen freely with 
full flavour.'^— Zow<fo7i. 

Forsyth says, " Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to 
grow horizontally, and the branches frequently trail on the 
ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high 
winds, especially when they are loaded with fruit. In that 
case, I would recommend two or three hoops to be put 
round them, to which the branches may be tied, to sup- 
port them, and prevent their being broken by the wind." 

Prolonging the crop. — " In addition to planting late sorts 
in shady situations, the bushes, whether standards or train- 
ed, may be matted over when the fruit is ripe, and, in this 
way, some of the reds, as the Warrington, and the thick- 
skinned yellov/ sorts, as the Mogul, will keep on the trees 
till Christmas." 

Insects,' — ^I'he gooseberry is infested with the caterpillars 
of several species of flies, and various methods have been 
prescribed to destroy them, which are detailed by Loudon. 
— Encyc. of Gard, p. 734, 735. The applications he men- 
tions were, generally, made by means of watering-pans and 
garden-engines, and the substances used were decoctions 
of tobacco, elder leaves, black currant leaves, soap, quick 
lime, &c. Mr. Loudon observes, however, that, in his 
opinion, the only effectual plan seems to be that of hand- 



142 



GOURD. 



picking, which, however tedious it may seem, will often he 
found a more economical mode than any of the ahove. 
Hand-picking, with the spring-generated kinds, should 
commence as soon as -the eggs are observed on the under- 
sides of the leaves, of a wdiite colour, and not thicker than 
hairs : the whole leaf may be picked off, or the eggs brush- 
ed or sponged oif : with the winter kinds, it ought to 
commence as soon as they leave their nidus in the soil or 
bark, and appear on the leaves." 

Preventive treatment. — " Sprinkling gooseberry and cur- 
rant bushes with tar-water prevents the fly or moth from 
settling on the plant to lay its eggs ; this must bedone early 
in the spring, for, if done after the fruit is set, it will taste 
of tar.''^ — /. Biisch J in Hort, Trans, iv, 415. 

Forcing,—^'- The gooseberry may be forced in pots or 
boxes, placed in pits, or in the peach-house or vinery. Hay 
plants in pots in November, removes to the peach-house in 
January, and has ripe fruit in the end of April, w^hich he 
sends to the table grov/ing on the plants." — Hort. Trans, 
IV. 415. 

Use. — " The fruit was formerly in little esteem, but it 
has received so much improvement, that it is now consid- 
ered very valuable for tarts, pies, sauces, and creams, before 
being ripe, and, w^hen at maturity, it forms a rich dessert 
fruit for three months, and is preserved in sugar for the 
same purpose, and in water for the kitchen. Unripe goose- 
berries can be preserved in bottles of water against winter ; 
the bottles are filled with berries close-corked and w^ell- 
sealed ; they are then placed in a cool cellar till w^anted. 
By plunging the bottles, after being corked, into boiling 
water for a fev/ minutes, (heating them gradually to pre- 
vent cracking,) the bottles are said to keep better." — NeilL 

Gooseberry wine is made in the same manner as currant 
wine, except that one third less sugar is required. In 
picking the berries, take none that have fallen upon the 
ground, or that have been shaded and growTi sour. 

GOURD. — Cucurhita, — -There are various kinds of 
gourds, which are, in this country, cultivated rather for orna- 
ment than use. They may be sow^n at the same time, and 
cultivated in the same manner, as melons and cucumbers ; 
but should be trained to trellises, fences, walls, or to cover 
arbours. " The large bottle-gourds [cucurhita lagenaria) 
are from ten to fifteen inches in length, and the shells will 
hold from one to three quarts. They are light, and make 
good dippers, and, with good usage, will last years. If, 



GRAFTING, 



143 



after a few gourds have set, the ends of the vmes are pinch- 
ed off, the fruit will be larger and better. The bicoloured 
gourd (cucurbita bicolor) is a small, beautiful, round fruity 
one part a deep green, and the other a bright yellow. On- 
ly ornamental." — Dr, Green, 

GRAFTING is the taking a shoot from one tree, and in- 
serting it into another, in such a manner that both may 
imite closely, and become one tree. Its use is to propagate 
any curious sorts of fruits, so as to be sure of the kinds, 
which cannot be done by any other method. 

The grafts or scions should be cut off from the trees be- 
fore their buds begin to swell, which is generally three 
weeks or a month before the season for grafting. They 
may be buried in ground half their length, and their tops 
covered with dry litter. If a small joint of the former 
year's wood is cut off with the scion, it will preserve it the 
better, and be more likely to take when grafted. If the 
scions are to be carried any considerable distance, it will be 
best to stick their lower end in a potato, or a lump of well- 
tempered, moist clay, and then wrap them up in moss, 
which will preserve them fresh a month, or longer. 

The best grafts are from trees raised from seed ; next, 
those raised from cuttings ; but those of trees raised from 
suckers should be rejected. They should be shoots of the 
last year's growth, and should be chosen from the outside 
lateral branches of healthy trees. The middle part of each 
shoot makes the best scions ; but long shoots, and especially 
where the scion is of a rare variety, maybe cut into several 
scions of four or six inches in length, reserving not fewer 
than two, nor more than five eyes to form the future head 
of the tree. 

The best stocks are such as have been allowed iouch 
room in the nursery ; those planted very close have the 
wood soft, and the grafts on them are not fruitful. 

The materials for grafting are, a strong pruning knife for 
cutting off the heads of the stocks, previous to their prepa- 
ration by the grafting knife, for the scion ; a small saw for 
large stocks ; and a penknife for very small scions ; a chis- 
el and mallet for cleft grafting ; bands or strings to tie the 
grafts with ; and grafting clay. 

Grafting clay should be prepared at least ten days previ- 
ous to its being wanted. Loudon directs to prepare it as 
follows : Take either stiff yellow or blue clay, or clayey 
loam or brick earth ; in either case adding thereto about a 
fourth part of fresh horse-dung, free from litter, and a por- 



144 



GRAFTING. 



tion of cut liay, mixing the whole together, and adding a 
little water; then let the whole be well beaten with a stick [or 
wrought with a hoe] upon a floor, or other hard substance ; 
and, as it becomes too dry, apply more water, at every beat- 
ing turning it over ; and continuing beating it well at top till 
it becomes flat and soft. This process ought to be repeat- 
ed more or less, according as the nature of the clay may 
require to render it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be 
apt to crack in dry weather : for instance, it should be 
several times beaten the first day ; and the next morning 
repeat the beating, still moistening it with water ; and by 
thus repeating the beating several times every day, for two 
or three days, or every other day at least, for a week, it 
will be in proper order for use ; observing that it should be 
prepared a week at least before it is used ; but if a month, 
the better, keeping it moist. Some recommend salt to be 
mixed with the clay, and others, ashes or lime, rubbish or 
drift sand ; the object in these cases being to prevent its 
cracking with the sun ; which, however, the horse-drop- 
pings, if well incorporated, will, in general, prevent." 

The grafting clay of the French and Dutch is composed 
of half cow-dung, free from litter, and half fresh loam, 
equally incorporated. They prefer this to all others for 
excluding the external air from wounds in trees, &c. of 
every description, and ridicule the idea of certain complex 
compositions. A French writer on agriculture observes of 
a noted English composition, (Forsyth's, we believe,) that 
it is " so complicated and ridiculous in the eyes of those 
who have any knowledge of chymistry or natural philoso- 
phy, that it is a matter of astonishment how it could be 
proposed in our age." 

Substitutes for grafting clay, — These are numerous. Some 
of them are specified by Loudon, (Encyc. of Gard, p. 397,) 
and in Thacher'^s Orchardist, p. 37, second ed. But we 
have been assured by practical orchardists that most of 
these are injurious. The pitch, tar, rosin, or turpentine, 
which composes part of the composition of most or all of 
them, is injurious to vegetation, and will not withstand the 
heat of summer. 

There are various modes of grafting, of which we shall 
describe some of the most common. 

1. Whip-grafting^ or, as it is sometimes called, tongue- 
grafting j is most commonly practised in nurseries upon 
small stocks. The stocks and the scions should be of the 
same or nearly the same size. They are bet!: tr sloped 



GRAFTING. 



145 



off a full inch or more, and then tied closely together. This 
method may be much improved by performing what gar- 
deners call tongueing or tipping ; that is, by making an in- 
cision in the bare part of the stock, downwards, and a simi- 
lar slit in the scion, upwards : after which, they are to be 
carefully joined together, so that the rinds of both may meet 
in every part^ when a ligament or bandage of bass is to be 
tied round the scion, to prevent it from being displaced, 
and the whole is to be covered over, or coated over with 
the grafting clay above described. 

2. Cleft-grafting, or slit-grajting^ is performed on stocks 
from one to two inches diameter. The head of the stock 
being carefully cut off, in a sloping direction, a perpendicu- 
lar cleft, or slit, is to be made about two inches deep, Vvdth 
a knife or chisel, towards the back of the slope, into which 
a w^edge is to be driven, in order to keep it open for the 
admission of the scion : the latter must now be cut in a 
perpendicular direction, and in the form of a wedge, so as 
to fit the incision in the stock. As soon as it is prepared, 
it should be placed in the cleft, in such a manner that the 
inner bark of both the stock and scion may meet exactly 
together. It is then to be tied with a ligature of bass, and 
clayed over, as is practised in whip-grafting^ three or four 
eyes being left in the scion uncovered. It should be 
observed, that, in making the cleft in the stock, care should 
be taken not to injure the pith, the scions being inserted in 
the sap-w^ood of the stock or branch. 

3. Crown-grafting is commonly practised upon such 
stocks as are too large and stubborn to cleave. It is some- 
times called grafting in the bark or rind, from the scion 
being inserted between the bark and wood. This mode of 
grafting is performed with best effect somewhat later than 
the others, as the motion of the sap renders the bark and 
wood of the stock much more easi!y separated for the 
admission of the scions. First cut or saw off the head of 
the stock or branch horizontally, or level, and pare the top 
smooth ; then, having the scions, cut one side of each flat, 
and somewhat sloping, an inch and a half long, forming a 
sort of a shoulder at the top of the slope, to rest upon the 
crown of the stock ; and then raise the rind of the stock 
with the ivory wedge, forming the handle of the budding 
knife, (or some other suitable implement of a wedge-like 
shape,) so as to admit the scion between the bark and the 
wood two inches down. Then place the scion with the 
cut side next to the w^ood, thrusting it down far enough for 

13 



146 



the shoulder to rest upon the top af the stock ; and in thig 
manner may be put three, four, five or more scions, in one 
large stock or branch. It is alleged as a disadvantage 
attending this method, in exposed situations, that the in- 
grafted shoots, for two or three years, are liable to be blown 
out of the stock by violent winds ; the only remedy for 
which is, tying long rods to the body of the stock or branchy 
and tying up each scion and its shoots to one of the rods. 

4. Side-grafting resembles whip or tongue-grafting y but 
differs in being performed on the side of the stock, without 
heading down» It is practised on wall-trees to fill up 
vacancies, and, sometimes, in order to have a variety of 
fruits upon the same tree. Having fixed upon those parts^ 
of the branches where wood is wanting to furnish the head 
or any part of the tree, there slope off the bark and a little 
of the wood, and cut the lower end of the scions to fit the 
part as near as possible ; then join them to the branch, tie 
them with bass, and clay them over. 

5. Saddle-grafting is performed by first cutting the top 
of the stock into a wedge-like form, and then splitting up 
the end of the scion, and thinning off each half to a tongue- 
shape; it is then placed on the wedge, embracing it on 
each side, and the inner barks are made to join oil one 
side of the stock, as in cleft-grafting. This is a very strong 
and handsome mode for standard trees, when grafted at the 
standard height. It is also desirable for orange-trees and 
rose-standards, as it makes a handsome finish, covering a 
part of the stock, which, by the other methods, long 
remains a black scar, and sometimes never becomes cov- 
ered with bark. The stocks for this purpose should not 
be much thicker than the scions, or two scions may be 
inserted. 

6. Root-grafting is sometimes performed, in nurseries, 
on parts of the roots of removed trees, when the proper 
stocks are scarce ; and in which case the root of the white- 
thorn has been resorted to, as stock both for the apple and 
pear. In general, "however, a piece of the root of the tree 
of the same genus is selected, well furnished with fibres, 
and a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways for 
grafting small stocks. Thus united, they are planted so 
deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only a few eyes 
of the scion above ground. " A variety of this kind of graft- 
ing, practised by Knight, is thus described : ' Transplanting, 
many years ago, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of 
which the soil was soft and deep, I found that the first- 



DRAFTING. 



147 



emitted roots of many of them descended a foot or more 
perpendicularly into the earth, before they divided into any 
lateral ramifications ; and, as I did not like to replant the 
young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpen- 
dicular root, I cut off about six inches from each. The 
amputated parts were then accurately fitted and bound, as 
in splice or whip-grafting^ to scions of pear-trees, which 
were selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and 
the roots, with their attached branches, were deposited in 
the ground as cuttings, so deep that the whole of the root 
and about an inch of the scion were covered. The soil 
was then drawn up with the hoe on each side of the plants, 
which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each 
plant was above the soil, and the other just within it. These 
grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I have subsequently 
repeated the same experiment, with equal success, upon the 
apple, the plum, and the peach. In the greater part of these 
experiments, the roots were perfectly cleansed from mould by 
washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were then 
placed in wet moss, till a sufficient number were ready to 
be carried to the nursery ; a common dibber only was em- 
ployed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into 
the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and 
to supply the place of the clay, used in other methods of 
grafting.' — Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 239. A variation of this 
mode consists in leaving that part of the tap-root not wanted, 
with the removed tree, undisturbed in the soil, and grafting 
on it there. Such root-grafts grow w^ith uncommon 
vigour." — Loudon, 

The time of the year for performing the above kinds of 
grafting should be, when the sap of the stock has begun to 
move, in the spring, and just before the buds are unfolded. 

7. Simmer-grafting, A letter from Abner Landrum to 
the editor of the American Farmerj contains the following 
observations on this subject : " About the 1st of July, when 
the growth of some trees had become stationary, I cut a 
twig of the pear-tree, and inserted it on a nursery stock, 
which readily grew off. I next tried almost every variety 
of orchard fruits, which succeeded perfectly well. I was 
induced to make this experiment from the rationality of the 
theory, it having occurred, upon the slightest reflection, that 
failures in spring-grafting might originate from the dissipa^- 
tion of moisture by the drying winds peculiar to that season, 
before the sap of the stock acquires sufficient motion to 
furnish the graft with due nourishment ; but from the rapid 



148 



motion of the sap in some stocks^ with the general mois- 
ture of the air during midsnmmerj the operation would sel- 
dom fail ; and the result fully proved this conclusion well 
founded. It next occurred to me^ that the walnut, fig, and 
persimon, which will not succeed in the spring, except by 
mere chance, might now answ^er on the same principle of 
reasoning : I accordingly made the experiment, and suc- 
ceeded. 

" To make the success of summer-grafting certain, take the 
twigs to be inserted from a tree in which the sap is, as near 
as possible, stationary; and select a stock in v>^hich the sap 
has the greatest possible motion, July is the proper time 
for summer-grafting, and indeed the most suitable month 
of the twelve for that operation. However, the operation 
may be performed, with tolerable success, during the remain- 
der of the summer and fall months.'^ 

8. Another mode of engrafting has been practised, and 
we believe invented, by Col. J. F. Wingate, of Bath, in the 
state of Maine, The process and its advantages are thus 
described in a letter from Col. Wingate to Gen. H. A. S» 
Dearborn : — " The instrument best adapted to the purpose,^ 
and which I have generally made use of in the operation^ 
is a common budding-knife,^ the handle of w^hich, being 
smooth and thin, is well designed for separating the bark 
from the wood of the stock ; and this is performed and the 
scion inserted in the following manner, namely ; in the first 
place, make a horizontal or transverse cut upon the stock 
or limb to be engrafted, according to its size, from one half 
to one and a half inch in length. Then at the left end 
(this being the most convenient) make a perpendicular cut 
downward, (through to the wood in both easeg,) about the 
same length ; take a small chip from the bark just above 
the horizontal line, or cut at the place w^here the scion is 
to be fixed, deep enough to allow the lower or w^edge part 
of it to meet and lay close to the inner bark or sap-v/ood 
of the stock. Raise the bark as in budding, and separate 
it sufficiently from the wood to receive the scion, v/hich 
should be gently pressed into the proper position, and there 
secured by slips of bass mats, or some other soft material^ 
wound around the limb or stock so as to cover the lower 
part of the scion, and press upon the bark of the tree the 
whole length of the perpendicular cut ; after which I have 
c^enerally rubbed on a thin coat of engrafting composition, 
for the purpose of excluding the dew and rain. That which 
I have found most durable and effectual for this purpose is 



GRAFTING. 



149 



made of equal parts of rosin, lard, and beeswax. When 
cold, it may be cut in thin slices as required for use, warmed 
in the hand sufficiently to apply and adhere to the wood, — ^ 
will yield to its growth, and remain until the wound is 
entirely healed. The scion should be of the usual length, 
exposing from three to five buds : the part inserted is cut in 
the wedge form, very much as in the ordinary cleft-grafting, 
except that the inner side must be bevelled to a proud edge 
to prevent its injuriously opening the bark of the stock 
beyond the scion, and opposite to the perpendicular cut. 
In some of my early experiments, I made a shoulder to the 
scion to rest upon the outside bark of the stock ; but this 
proved entirely useless, as the scion invariably first took on 
the inner part, from the ascending sap, except in one 
instance, in which I reversed the scion, and inserted the top 
<iov/n wards, when, after some delay, it appeared, so far as I 
could discover the adhesion, to take from the returning sap 
in the outer bark ; but as I made only a single experiment 
of this kind, and the scion was accidentally removed soon 
after it had taken, I am unable to give you any additional 
facts respecting it, which might be either useful or interest- 
ing. 

" I will now state what I conceive to be the advantages of 
the present over the ordinary mode of engrafting and of 
budding. Among the most important, I may perhaps say, 
that it can be performed with more ease and with greater 
facility, — that the scion takes more readily and grows more 
rapidly,^ — that it may be inserted in any part of the trunk or 
limb of the tree, without amputating or otherwise injuring 
it, and where the other mode cannot be easily performed. 
If it take, the necessary pruning may be made at any sub- 
sequent period, and if it fail, the wound in the bark is soon 
closed, the tree is not disfigured, neither is it retarded in 
its growth, nor is the quantity of its fruit, if it be in bearing^ 
diminished. Thus it may be said to have all the advan- 
tages of budding, with the additional one of producing the 
new fruit certainly one, and probably two or three years 
sooner ; and further, it may be successfully performed at 
any season of the year while the sap is in motion, and the 
scions taken from the growth of the same or of the preced- 
ing year. It will be found, too, that the stock is less 
injured, heals more readily and effectually, than when split, 
as in the ordinary mode of cleft-grafting. All the branches 
of a tree may be removed clean to the trunk, and new ones 
produced, and any shape or form given to the tree by the 
13* 



150 



GRAFTING. 



insertion of scions at such places as you please. And I am 
certain that they adhere more firmly, and are less liable to 
injury from rain or violent winds, than those inserted in a 
different manner ; and, if properly inserted, probably not one 
in fifty will fail. 

" On one tree, to which I gave an entire new top last year, 
and which had never before blossomed, several iine apples 
were produced and ripened in perfection, although the 
scions blossomed about one month later than the parent 
tree. I ought, perhaps, to add, that one cause of the success 
and extraordinary growth of some of the scions I have 
inserted in this way is doubtless the severe pruning I have 
given the trees about the time they were engrafted ; and 
it may be proper to state, that I have experimented only 
upon apple-trees, although I am aware of no reason why 
this mode should not answer equally well on most other 
kmds of fruit-trees, where budding and grafting could be 
successfully performed. I have sent you by the packet a 
specimen of the new mode of engrafting, which is indeed 
of very extraordinary growth ; the scion was inserted the 
5th of September, 1824, being the growth of the same year : 
the leaves of that season died and dropped OiF, new ones 
were disclosed, and new buds formed the same autumn, 
and the two branches are the entire growth of last year, 
and of the following dimensions, namely; -main branch, 
five and a half feet in length ; secondary, four feet and a 
half ; circumference of main branch at the base, 2^ inches ; 
the other somewhat less. I have taken off some of the 
wood of the tree in the bark, of which the scion was in- 
serted, in order that you may perceive how firmly and per- 
fectly it has united with the main stock, which was a scrub 
apple-tree, and in which two or three scions v»^ere likewise 
inserted in the ordinary mode, whose growth, I think, is less 
than one half of the one sent you, engrafted in the new 
way." 

Future treatment, — In a month after grafting, it may be 
ascertained whether the scion has united with the stock, by 
observing the progress of its buds ; but, in general, it is not 
safe to remove the clay for three months or more, till the 
graft be completely cicatrized. The clay may generally be 
taken ofi* in July or August, and at the same time the liga- 
ture** loosened, where the scion seems to require more room 
to expand; a few weeks afterwards, when the parts have 
been thus partially inured to the air, and when there is no 
danger of the scion being blown off by winds, the whole of 



GREEN-HOUSE. 



151 



the ligatures may be removed. If the stock was not short- 
ened down close to the graft, or junction of the scion with 
the stock, at the time of the operation, it may be done 
now, or as soon as the ligatures can be entirely dispensed 
with. In particular cases, a ligature round the graft, or a 
stake or other prop, for the shoots of the scion, may be 
necessary for a year to come, to protect against winds ; or 
a bandage of moss kept over the graft, to preserve moisture, 
and encourage the expansion of the parts, and complete the 
filling up of the wound. — Loudon. 

Effects of grafting. — The nature of the fruit is, to a cer- 
tain extent, affected by the nature of the stock. Miller 
says decidedly, " that crab-stocks cause apples to be firm- 
er, to keep longer, and to have a sharper flavour ; and he 
is equally confident, that, if the breaking pears be grafted 
on quince stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony, 
while the melting pears are much improved by such stocks. 
This, according to Neill, is scarcely to be considered as 
inconsistent with Lord Bacon's doctrine, ' that the scion 
overruleth the graft quite, the stock being passive only 
which, as a general proposition, remains true ; it being evi- 
dent, that the scion, bud, or inarched shoot, is endowed 
v/ith the power of drawing or forming from the stock that 
peculiar kind of nourishment which is adapted to its na- 
ture, and that the specific characters of the engrafted plant 
remain unchanged, although its qualities may be partially 
affected." — Ed. Encyc. art. Horticidture, 

GREEN-HOUSE.— A green-house is a building de- 
signed to protect, during winter, such exotic plants, shrubs, 
and trees, as Vvall bear being exposed to the open air 
daring summer, but are too tender for such exposure in 
winter. 

J. W. Watkins, Esq. of New York, gives the following 
plan for the construction of a green-house, in the Trans, of 
the Agric. Sac. of the above state : — 

" The building should be sunk in the earth from two to 
four feet, in proportion to the size of the house, and ac- 
cording to the nature of the soil ; as clay retains moisture, 
and of consequence produces dan^ps, in such ground it 
should not be so deep. The height should not exceed 
twelve feet from the exterior ground, by which it will 
^be less exposed to high winds. The width shofild not 
exceed sixteen or eighteen feet, as the sun's rays are, at 
that distance from the glass, very feeble. A south front is 
well known to be the tnie one, but advantage should b« 



\ 



152 



GREEN-HOUSE. 



taken of glazing as much of the eastern end as possible, 
for the benefit of the morning sun. The front should de- 
cline northward from a perpendicular with the horizon, so 
as the angle made thereby with the horizon will, at noon- 
day in winter, bring the rays of the sun to strike the glass at 
right angles, and the roof should descend the opposite side 
without a break. By this position of the roof and glass, the 
rays of the sun are thrown upon every part of the inside of 
the house, and the whole becomes heated thereby ; more of 
the rays are also introduced into the building, and when the 
sun produces most heat during the day, there is no reflec- 
tion of its rays, and at other parts of the day, the reflecting 
angle, being obtuse, does not powerfully cast ofl' the rays. 
The inside of the rafters of the roof should be lined with 
boards, and the space between that and the roof filled with 
a mixture of straw, sand, and clay, made into mortar ; 
boards should be used in preference to shingles, as, making 
fewer breaks in the roof, less opportunity is given for the 
admission of cold air. The residue of the building may 
be of stone or brick work, or a frame building filled in 
with bricks, and no flooring of any kind upon the ground. 
Shutters on the outside are sufficient; and it is preferable to 
have them hung on hinges, as the least troublesome, to the 
common practice of sliding ones : they should be made to 
fold into the spaces between the windows. 

" Before putting the plants "into the house, the bottom 
should be covered with bark from a tan-vat, about a foot 
deep, according to the depth the building is sunk in the 
earth. 

" The advantages proposed by this method of constructing 
are, the lessening the expense of building ; that, the heat of 
the sun being sufficient to warm the house, the trouble and 
expense of warming it by a stove is avoided, which unless 
very carefully attended, the plants may be injured by too 
much heat, and are always by the smoke that unavoidably 
makes its way out of the pipes. It would be proper, nev- 
ertheless, to make arrangements in constructing the house 
for using a stove, in case a long succession of cold, cloudy 
days, by obscuring the sun, should reduce the heat in the 
house below that degree of temperature necessary for pre- 
serving the plants, w^hich is a case that will seldom hap- 
pen, as one clear day will warm the house sufficiently to 
admit its being shut up for several days. 

" Plants in a house of this kind require less water, and do 
not sufler for the want of atmospheric air. It is probable, 



HAWTHORN, 



153 



as the earth is charged with electric fluids, as vegetable 
substances are known conductors of it, that the bark, by its 
fermentation, not only generates heat, but serves as a mean 
to produce out of the earth an atmosphere for the plants, 
sufficient, with such atmospheric air as will hnd admission, 
to supply the quantity exhausted by the daily rarefaction 
occasioned by the sun's heat. 

A green-house has been used upon this construction in 
this state, without having had the least occasion of being 
heated by fire. The plants in the spring were remarkably 
thrifty ; tropical fruit ripened in it during the winter, and 
young fruit formed on the trees. It required no other care, 
than now and then watering the plants, and shutting the 
windows as soon as the sun left them." 

With respect to the management of plants in green- 
houses, it is recommended occasionally to open the mould 
in which they are set, to scatter a little fresh earth on the 
pots, and over this to lay a little dung. It will also be ad- 
visable to water them when the leaves begin to curl or 
wither, and to pluck off such as are decayed; but these 
operations should not be too frequently repeated. 

" Some people," says M'Mahon, " are desirous of keep- 
ing out their plants as long as possible ; this is very right, 
but it ought not to be extended to too hazardous aperiod ; for 
one night's frost would cause the leaves to lose their fine 
green colour, which perhaps might not be restored during 
the whole winter ; and, if any v/ay severe, serious injury 
might be sustained. 

" If the windows and doors are kept open day and night, 
as long as there is safety in so doing, the plants will be 
nearly as well off as in the open air, and no danger is en- 
countered : the mere difference of five or six days in the 
taking in of the plants will ensure safety ; but, on the other 
hand, it is not right to be too precipitate in housing them, 
before the common appearance of the weather indicates 
the necessity." 

HAWTHORN. — Cratcegus, — There are a great many 
species of this genus of plants, (see Hedge,) of which the 
oxycantha^ or English hawthorn, as it is commonly named 
in the United States, is most generally cultivated for the 
purpose of forming hedges. The manner of raising the 
thorn quicks is as follows : — 

Collect your seeds in autumn, mix them with equal 
quantities of light, sandy earth, and lay them in that state on 
the surface of a dry spot of ground in your best enclosed 



154 



HAWTHORN. 



garden, where they cannot be disturbed by hogs, &c. ; form 
this mixture into a narrow, sloping ridge, tapering to the 
top, and cover it with light, loose earth, two inches thick 
all over ; the April following, turn this ridge, mixing the 
whole together, and form it again the same way, covering 
in like manner as before, with two inches deep of light, 
loose earth ; repeat this again in the months of July and 
August, by which the seeds in every part will be equally 
prepared for vegetation. A trench must be cut round this 
ridge, to prevent any water from lodging about the seeds ; 
for this would rot many and injure others, especially in the 
second winter, when the stones w^ould be losing their ce- 
menting quality, and begin to open ; for until this is effect- 
ed the kernels cannot vegetate. Hence the necessity and 
great advantage of not burying the stones in the earth, as 
is injudiciously practised by many. 

There is not the least danger to be apprehended from 
frost Injuring the seeds, whilst so much exposed to it in those 
riJge* J however, it will not be amiss to strew a light cov- 
ering of long litter over them on the approach of winter; 
which will keep them dry, and in a better state for sowing 
when the season arrives. 

" Your haws being prepared as above, make ready a 
piece rf good rich ground, neither upon an elevated situa- 
tion, *>or too low; in the former the summer drought would 
be unfriendly, and in the latter they would be subject to 
mildew : this^must be done as early in the spring as you 
can get the ground to work freely, and pulverize ^ for 
the haws begin to throw out roots at a very ewr-ly period ; 
and if not sown at this time, or before, a grea^ "aumber of 
these roots will be broken off in the act of sowing, and 
thereby totally lost ; the others which escape this accident, 
having their radicles extended on the surface, penetrate the 
earth at the extreme points of those roots, forming right 
angles with the parts already produced, by which means 
they can never drive up the seed leaves with as much 
vigour as if the radicles descended immediately in a per- 
pendicular direction from the stones of the fruit ; hence 
th« necessity of early sowing. 

" The ground, however, must not be wrought while wet, 
or at least the seeds should not be covered with wet or 
heavy earth, nor too deep, for if the surface should cake, 
or become stiff in consequence of dry weather ensuing, 
few of these young plants, having broad seed leaves, could 
bear up through it; therefore, you must be very cautious 



HAWTHORN. 



155 



in that point, and if the earth of your bed is not light and 
dry enough for this purpose, you must carry as much 
as will cover the seeds from some dry compost heap, or 
some quarter of the garden, where it can be found in a 
suitable condition. 

" On examining your haws, if you find the earth in 
which they are mixed any way clogged with too much 
moisture, so that the parts and seeds would not separate 
freely in the act of sowing ; mix therewith a sufficient 
quantity of slaked lime, or wood-ashes, to accomplish that 
end. 

" Having every thing in readiness, and your ground well 
dug, and raked effectually as you proceeded in the digging ^ still 
presuming that it is in the best possible state of prepara- 
tion, lay it out into four feet wide beds, leaving twelve or 
fourteen inches of an alley between each, and with the 
back of the rake push off into these alleys about three 
quarters of an inch of the fine raked surface of the beds, 
one half of each bed to the one side, and the other to the 
opposite ; this done, sow your haws thereon, earth and all, 
as they had lain, so thick that you may expect a thousand 
plants at least, after every reasonable allowance for faulty 
or imperfect seeds, (there being many of these,) on every 
three or four yards of your beds ; — I have often had that 
number on as many feet ; — ^then with a spade or shovel cast 
the earth out of the alleys evenly over the beds, covering 
the seeds not more than three quarters of an inch deep, and 
not more than half an inch, if the ©arth be any way stiff ; 
after which rake the tops of the beds very lightly^ taking 
care not to disturb the seeds, in order to take off the lumps, 
and to give a neat appearance to the work." — M'Mahon. 
If any stiffness of the ground is perceived, the beds should 
have frequent and gentle waterings ; and great care will be 
necessary to keep the beds free from weeds from the mo- 
ment the plants appear above ground till they are fit to be 
planted in hedge-rows, and have arrived at such a size that 
weeds cannot materially injure them. 

Mr. Kirk, of Brandywine, has been successful in making 
the seeds of the American thorn vegetate, by washing them 
clean, putting them in hot water to swell them, and ex 
posing the water in which ^they were immersed to be 
frozen and thawed several times. Dr. Mease, of Philadel- 
phia, says, " The haws of the Washington thorn, CraicEgus 
cordata^ require to be buried one winter before they sprout, 
and they should be put into the ground the same autumn 



156 HEAl/ING DOWN FRUTT-TREES.—HEBGES. 



they are taken off the tree ; the pulp which surrounds 
them having been previously rubbed oft and the stone 
washed. The usual way is to put them in a box of sand, 
and to stand it under the eaves of a house, to receive the 
dropping of water from it, and by the spring they will be 
open and ready for planting." — Mem, Phil, Agr. Soc. vol. 
iii. p. 439. See further^ Hedges. 

Insects. — A great enemy to the hawthorn is the horer^ 
(saperda himtata^) the same wiiicli infests apple-trees, &c. ; 
and we know of no method of guarding against its ravages. 
It is said, however, that this insect has never made its ap- 
pearance in the interior parts of the United States, and is 
to be found only within the distance of a few miles from 
the sea shore. 

HEADING DOWN FRUIT-TREES.—'' When any 
fruit-trees have begun to decline, and are thin of young 
wood, you may often restore them by heading down such 
limbs as are in the w^orst state to those parts where young 
shoots appear, and close to the most vigorous ; but this 
should not be done, generally, the same season, lest it give 
such a sudden check to the sap as totally to destroy the 
tree. But if every other branch all over the tree were 
headed at proper lengths, each close to some young shoot, 
lew, healthy wood would be produced, which would soon 
come into bearing. The next spring after the first branch- 
es were headed, the remaining old branches may be cut out, 
as directed above ; after which the head of the tree will 
soon be filled with bearing wood, which may afterwards be 
pruned as directed for other trees." — M^Mahon, 

HEDGES. — A great variety of shrubs and trees have 
been made use of for hedges, among which are various 
kinds of thorns, such as the Crat-xgiis oxyacantha^ or com- 
mon European havv^thorn, or white thorn ; the Cratcegus 
coccinea^ or great x4-merican hawthorn ; the Cratcegus cms- 
galli^ or cockspur hawthorn; the Cratcegus cordata^ or 
American hedge thorn ; crab and apple-tree^,, horn-beam, 
beech, honey-locust, buckthorn, holly, white mulberry, ju- 
niper, red cedar, &c. &c. 

Mr. Quincy, of Massachusetts, has sjiven a statement of 
his mode oi making hedges of the Crafagus cordata, which 
was published in .Lie third volume of the Mass, Agr. Rep, 
p. 27. The seed;lng thorns (ten thousand) w^ere obtained 
from the nursery of Thomas Main, near Georgetovvn, D. C, 
and planted m a hedge-course of two hundred and fifty-five 
rods, so far as w^as necessary to fill that extent in. one line, 



HEDGES. 



157 



each plant being five inches apart. The residue were 
planted in a nursery, for the purpose of filling vacancies. 

The hedge-course was made in sandy land, ploughed of 
the width of four feet, and manured and prepared precisely as 
for Indian corn ; except, only, that, after ploughing, the cen- 
tre, for two feet wide, was turned over wdth the spade, and 
the hedge planted without further preparation. Mr. Quin- 
cy advises to the following course : — " Plough the hedge- 
course six feet wide. Plant the whole course one year to 
potatoes. This pays for the labour as much as other land 
thus planted. Set the thorns eight inches apart. This is 
near enough in a country like this, W'here hogs are not per- 
mitted to run at large, and makes a considerable saving in 
labour as well as the cost of the plants. Keep both sides 
of the h ?:loe planted with, potatoes, during the whole six 
years that the hedge is coming to perfection. The potatoes 
will nearly pay the cost of the labour. The manure for the 
potatoes benefits the hedge; and, while hoeing the pota- 
toes, keeping the hedge clear of weeds is easy. 

" To keep the hedge clear of weeds, and to fill up the 
vacancies regularly in the spring of every year, with plants 
of the same age with those of the original hedge, are the 
two essential objects of attention after the hedge-course is 
prepared, and the plants are set. Younger plants ma^ 
answer, but whoever w^ould make a hedge, in the most 
speedy and perfect manner, ought to procure, at the time 
of obtaining the plants for the original hedge, a sufficient 
extra number to supply all deficiencies likely to occur dur- 
ing the w^hole time the hedge is forming ; to be kept at a 
nursery, thriving, if possible, a little better than those in the 
hedge-course." 

With respect to the age at v/hich plants for hedges oug^ht 
to be used, Loudon says, Three years old are certainly 
the youngest that should be transplanted, and if they are 
six or seven ynars old, so much the better ; the prevailing 
idea that plants of that age v/il\ not thrive, if transplanted, 
is totally unfounded." He likewise recommends assorting 
the plants, and setting those together which are nearly of a 
size ; because, w^hen no pains have been taken in assort- 
mg the plants, and they are planted promiscuously, great 
and small, strong and v/eak, the consequence is, that the 
strongest plants very soon outgrow such as are weaker, 
and not only overtop them, but also deprive them of that 
nourishment which they so much require. As the hedge 
advances in age, the evil becomes greater; small, stunted 



158 



HOEING. 



plants and innumerable gaps appearing throughout the 
whole line of the fence, interspersed with others remarkable 
for their strength and luxuriance. 

" This assorting of hedge-plants has another advantage, 
namely, that of putting it in the power of the person, who 
plants the hedge, to put dov;n the large, strong, healthy 
plants upon the poorest parts of the line of fence, and to set 
such as are smaller and weaker upon the richer and more 
fertile parts. He has it also in his power, by a more care- 
ful preparation of the soil, and bestowing a greater propor- 
tion of manure on the places where the plants are set, to 
give them that nourishment and assistance which they 
require, and which would very soon enable them to form a 
fence equal to that part occupied by the strongest plants." 

Hedges may be of various kinds, such as the single hedge 
and ditch ; the hedge and bank; the level hedge, &c. ; of 
which, descriptions may be found in Loudon's Encyclopedia 
of Agriculture^ and other books of husbandry. 

It is often found necessary to plash or interweave the 
branches of hedges. Some advise to cut off the tops, or 
head them down to about three feet, or three feet and a 
half from the ground, when the plants are about four years 
old, &c. &c. See Loudonh Encyc. of Agr. ; Farmer^s As- 
sistant ; Willichh Dom, Encyc, ; Mem. of N. Y, Board of 
Agr, vol. ii. p. 161. 

A writer in the Mass, Agr, Rep, says, " The best plant 
for hedges, so far as the experience of one of our cultiva- 
tors, Ezekiel H. Derby, will go, and he has tried it for 
many years, is the buckthorn. It makes a close, beautiful 
hedge, and is not subject to any disease, nor the depreda- 
tions of any devourer, so far as we yet know." See art. 
Buckthorn, p. 56. 

HOEING. — "The ends to be answered by hoeing are 
chiefly these: — 1. To destroy weeds, which are always 
ready to spring up in every soil, and which would rob the 
cultivated plants of most of their food. Scraping the sur- 
face, if it be done frequently, may answer this purpose ; but 
to destroy the roots of v/eeds, deeper hoeing is necessary. — 
2. To keep the soil from becoming too compact, which 
prevents the roots from extending themselves freely in 
search of their food ; at the same time keeping up a fer- 
mentation, by which the vegetable food is concocted, and 
brought into contact with the roots. For this purpose, the 
deeper land is hoed, the better. But hoeing should cease, 
or be onlv superficial, when the roots are so far extended 



HORSE-RADISH. 



159 



as to be much injured by hoeing. They will bear a little 
cutting without injury. For where a root is cut off, several 
new branches will come in its place. — 3. To render the 
soil more open and porous, so that it shall greedily drink in 
the nightly dews, and that rain may not run off, but readily 
soak in as it falls, and be retained. Accordingly, the more 
and oftener land is hoed, the more moisture it retains, the 
better it bears drought, and the more its plants are nour- 
ished. — 4. Another design of hoeing, and which has not 
been enough attended to, is, to nourish plants by drawing 
fresh soil near to them, the effluvium of which enters their 
pores, and increases their growth. At the same time the 
earthing of plants makes them stand more firmly, and in- 
creases their pasture in the spots where the roots most 
abound ; and prevents the drying of the earth down to the 
roots." — Deane. 

HORSE-RADISH.— CocMearia Armoracia.— The fol- 
lowing instructions for cultivating horse-radish are by 
Knight, a celebrated English horticulturist : — ^' Horse-rad- 
ish thrives best in deep, soft, sandy loam, that is not very 
dry in summer, nor inundated in winter ; the situation must 
be open. During winter, [or in autumn,] trench the ground 
three feet deep ; and in the following February [as soon as 
frost will permit in this country] procure your sets, in the 
choice of which take the strongest crowns, or leading buds, 
from old plants, cutting them about two inches long. Mark 
out the ground in four feet beds, and one foot alleys ; then 
take from the first bed nine inches of the top soil, laying it 
upon the adjoining bed ; aftef which take out an opening 
at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, 
fifteen inches deep from the present surface ; then level the 
bottom, after which plant a row of sets across the bed at 
nine inches apart, each way, with their crowns upright; 
afterwards dig the next trench the same width and depth, 
turning the earth into the first trench, over the row of sets ; 
thus proceeding, trench after trench, to the end. Where 
more them the produce of one bed is required for the supply 
of the family for twelve months, the third bed is next to be 
planted, which treat as directed for the first, only observing 
to lay the earth on the fourth, and so on to any number of 
beds. Upon every alternate bed, which is not planted, a 
dwarf annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept 
clear from weeds during summer ; and as soon as the 
leaves decay in autumn, let them be carefully raked off 
with a wooden-toothed rake ; in the following February, 



160 



liOKSE-RADISH. 



Lor as soon as frost will permit,] eighteen inches of the 
earth of the unplanted bed must be laid, as light as possible, 
and equally, over the beds that are planted ; then trench 
and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same manner as 
before directed. The follovving autumn, the first-planted 
horse-radish may be taken up, by opening a trench at one 
end of the bed, to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks 
or roots of horse-radish may be taken up entire and sound, 
which, for size and quality, will be such as have not gen- 
erally been seen. The foilov/ing February, [March or 
April,] the one year old crop will require additional earth, 
as before directed, v»diich must of course be taken from 
those beds, which are now vacant, which when done, if 
the ground appears poor, or unlikely to produce another 
vigorous crop, they rnust have a coat of manure." — Hort, 
Trans, i. 207. 

" Judd has also v/ritten on the culture of horse-radish, 
{Hort, Trans, v. 302,) and his practice, though very differ- 
ent from Knight's, is also excellent, and perhaps prefer- 
able. Knight takes strong buds from old plants, while 
Judd takes about three inches of the top part of each stick 
or root, and then cuts clean off about a quarter of an inch 
Df this piece under the crov/n, so as to leave no appearance 
of a green bud. Judd trenches only two feet deep, and, if 
he applies manure, puts it in the very bottom of the trench ; 
' for, if not so done, the horse-radish, which always puts out 
some side roots, would send out such large side roots from 
the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as 
materially to injure the crop. In planting, holes are made 
eighteen inches apart every way, and sixteen or eighteen 
inches deep. The root-cuttings are let down to the bottom 
of the holes, which are afterwards filled up with fine sifted 
cinder-dust, and the surface of the bed is then raked over. 
The season of planting is the latter part of March.' The 
essential difference between Knight's plan and Judd's is, 
that the former produces his root from the root-end of the 
cutting downwards, and the latter from the bud-end up- 
wards : hence the one plants near the surface, and the 
other near the bottom of the trench. Judd's mode seems 
more certain of producing one entire strong root than 
Knight's. " — Loudon. 

Use.~Th.e root, when scraped into shreds, is much used 
at the table as a condiment for fish, roast beef, &c. If in- 
tended for immediate use, it should, says Willich's Do- 
mestic Encyclopedia. " be dug out of the ground fresh^ only 



HOT-BED. 



161 



from October to March ; or be gathered in the spring ; then 
dried, reduced to powder, and preserved in bottles closely 
stopped for occasional use ; when it should be previously- 
moistened with spring water. When steeped and digested 
in vinegar during a fortnight, this root is said eifectuaily to 
remove freckles in the face." It is likewise recommended 
in cases of dropsy, scurvy, rheumatism, palsy, &c. — Phillips^ 
History of Vegetables, "^"^ — New England Farmer^ vol. v. pp. 
269, 270. 

HOT-BED. — A hot-bed, in gardening, is a small bed or 
mound of earth, composed of certain substances, which, by 
their fermentation, give warmth to vegetables or seeds, set 
or sow^ed in them, and thus hasten their growth. The fer- 
menting substances used for forming hot-beds are, stable 
litter or dung, in a recent or fresh state, tanners' bark, leaves 
of trees, grass, and the herbaceous parts of plants generally. 

" Stable dung is in the most general use for forming hot- 
beds, which are masses of this dung after it has undergone 
its most violent fermentation. These masses are generally 
in the form of solid parallelograms, of magnitude propor- 
tioned to the frames which are to be placed on them, the 
degree of heat required, and the season of the year in which 
the}/ are formed. 

Tanners' bark is only preferred to dung because the 
substance, which undergoes the process of putrid fermenta- 
tion, requires longer time to decay. Hence it is found use- 
ful in the bark-pits of hot-houses, as requiring to be sel- 
domer removed or renevved tha.n dung, or any other fer- 
mentable substance, that can be procured in equal quantity. 

" Leaves, and especially oak leaves, come the nearest to 
bark, and have the additional advantage, that, when per- 
fectly rotten, like dung, they form a rich mould, or excel- 
lent manure ; whereas, rotten tanners' bark is found rather 
injurious than useful to vegetation, unless well mixed with 
lime and earth. 

" Preparation of manures. — The object of preparation in 
these three substances being to get rid of violent heat, 
which is produced when the fermentation is most powerful, 
it is obvious, that preparation must consist in facilitating the 
process. For this purpose, a certain degree of moisture and 
air in the fermenting bodies is requisite; and hence the 
business of the gardener is, to turn them over frequently, 
and apply water when the process appears impeded for 
want of it, and exclude rain when it seems chilled and im- 
14* 



163 



HOT-BED. 



peded by too much water. Recent stable dung generailj 
requires to lie a month in ridges or beds, 1: I ne tiiriicd 
over in that time thrice, before it is fit for cuc^iiiber beds 
of the common construction. But for linings, or for frames 
with moveable bottoms, three weeks, a fortnight, or less, 
v/ill suffice ; or no time at all need be given, but the dung 
formed at once into linings. Tan and leaves^ in general, 
require a month ; but much depends on the state of the 
weather, and the season of the year. Fermentation is 
always most rapid in summer ; and if the materials are 
spread abroad during frost, it is totally impeded. 

The formation of the dung-beds is effected by first mark- 
ing out the dimensions of the plan, which should be six 
inches wider on all sides than that of the frame to be placed 
over it ; and then, by successive layers of dung, laid on by 
a fork, raising it to the desired height, pressing it gC':t]y 
and equally throughout. In general, such beds are formed 
on a level surface ; but Knight's mode is, to form a surface 
of earth as a basis, vdiich shall incline to the horizon, to 
the extent of fifteen degrees : on this he forms the dung-bed 
to the same inclination ; and, finally, the frame, when 
placed on such a bed, if, as is usual, it be deepest behind, 
will present its glass at an angle of twenty degrees, instead 
of six or eight ; which is, undoubtedly, of great advantage in 
the winter season. This seems a very desirable improve- 
ment, where light is an object, which it must be in a high 
degree in the case of the culture of cucumbers and melons, 
as well as in forcing fiowers. 

" Ashes are often mixed with the dung of hot-beds, and 
are supposed to promote the steadiness and duration of their 
heat, and at first to revive it if somev/hat decayed. Tan 
and leaves have been used for the same purpose ; and it is 
generally found, that about one third of tan and two thirds 
of dung vAW form a more durable and less violent heat 
than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of dung-beds is re- 
vived by linings or collateral and surrounding walls or 
banks of fresh dung, the old dung of the bed being previ- 
ously cut down close to the frame. These linings, as before 
observed, require less preparation than the dung for the 
beds. The dung-bed, being formed, and having stood two 
or three days v>^ith the frame and lights placed over it to 
protect it from rain, is next to be covered with earth of 
quality, and in quantity, according to the purpose to which 
it is to be applied. In severe weather, the sides of the 



HOT-HOC SE.— -HYSSOP. 163 

bed are often protected by bundles of str .w or fagots, 
which tend to prevent the escape of the heat." — Encyc. of 

Gardening, 

HOT-HOUSE.—" A hot-house is a building intended 
to form a habitation for vegetables ; either for sucli exotic 
plants as will not grov/ in the open air of the country 
Vfhere the building is erected, or for such indigenous and 
acclimated plants as it is desired to force or excite into 
a state of vegetation, or accelerate their maturation at an 
extraordinar}^ season. 

" Such heat as is required, in addition to that of the sun, 
is most generally produced by the ignition of carbonaceous 
materials, which heat the air of the house, either directly, 
vv^hen hot embers of wood are left in a furnace or stove, 
placed within the house, as in Sweden or Russia ; mediate- 
ly, as when smoke and heated air, from or passing through 
ignited fuel, is made to circulate in flues; or indirectly, when 
ignited fuel is applied to boil water, and the hot vapour, or 
water itself, is impelled through tubes of metal or other 
conductors, and either to heat the air of the house at once, 
as in most cases, or to heat masses of brick-work, sand, 
gravel, rubble, or earth, tan, or even ^vater, (Hort. Trons. 
voL iii.,) which materials may afterwards give out the heat 
so acquired slowly to the atmosphere of the house. But 
heat is also occasionally supplied from fermenting vegeta- 
ble substances, as dung, tan, leaves, weeds, &c., applied 
either beneath or around tlie vv^hole or a part of the house, 
or placed in a body within iV"^— Encyc. of Gardening. 

Steam affords the most simple and effectual mode of 
heating hot-house% and indeed large bodies of air in any 
building, and is the most convenient carrier of heat, which 
human ingenuity has ever discovered or employed. — See 
Encyc. of Gardening^ from p. 310 to pp. 333, 502, &c. 

HYSSOP. — Hyssopns officinalis. — This is a hardy plant, 
a native of the south of Europe, and grows to the height 
of about eighteen inches. 

Propagation and culture.—^' It is raised by slips and cut- 
tings of the branches, and by slips of the root and top 
together. It likes a dry and sandy soil. When it is propa- 
gated by see;!, sow in March or April a small portion, 
either broad-cast and raked in, or in small drills six inches 
apart. TtiQ plants may mostly be transplanted into fmal 
beds in June or July^ nine inches apart, or some may be 
.>iauted as a.-i edging ; or you may also sov/ some seed for 
-sn edging, to remain where sown. Give the edgings occa- 



164 



INARCHING. INDIAN CORN. 



sionaily trimming in their established growth ; cutting away 
also any decayed flower-spikes in antiimn. You may take 
rooted offsets from established plants in March, April, Au- 
gust or September, cuttings from the stalks in April and 
May ; also rootless slips of the young shoots in June or 
July. After May, shade for a time, or plant in a shady bor- 
der. If for culinary purposes, the distance from plant to 
plant may be nine inches ; in the physic garden, eighteen 
inches or two feet. Water at planting, and twice or thrice 
a week in dry weather till rooted." — Abercrombie, 

Use. — The leaves and young shoots are occasionally used 
as a pot-herb, and the leafy tops and flower-spikes are cut, 
dried, and preserved for medicinal purposes. They are 
particularly recommended in humoral asthmas, coughs, and 
other disorders of the breast and lungs. 

INARCHING. — This method of engrafting is used, 
when the slock intended to graft on, and the tree from 
which the graft is taken, stand so near (or can be brought 
so near) that they may be joined together. The method 
of performing the operation is as folio Vv^s : — 

Take the branch you would inarch, and, having fitted it 
to that part of the stock where you intend to join it, pare 
away the rind and wood on one side about three inches in 
length. After the same manner cut the stock or branch in 
the place where the graft is to be united, so that the rind 
of both may join equally together, that the sap may meet; 
then cut a little tongue upwards in the graft, and make a 
slit in the stock downward to admit it; so that, when they 
are joined, the tongue will prevent their slipping, and the 
graft will more closely unite with the stock. Having thus 
placed them exactly together, they must be tied with some 
bass ; then cover the place with grafting-clay, to prevent 
the air from entering to dry the wound, or the wet from 
getting in to rot the stock ; you should also fix a stake in 
the ground, to which that part of the stock, and likewise the 
graft, should be fastened, to prevent the wind from break- 
ing them asunder. In this manner they should remain 
about four months, when the graft may be cut from the 
mother tree, sloping it off close to the stock, and at the 
same time covering the jointed parts with fresh grafting clay. 

INDIAN CORN.— Zea.— We shall not undertake to 
state the various methods employed for the field-culture of 
this valuable vegetable, with which it is presumed our 
readers are, generally, acquainted. But as it is often 
wanted as a culinary article, for early use, and cultivated in 



iNOCULATlON, OR BUDDING. 



165 



gardens for the supply of the table, we will give M'Ma- 
hon's mode of raising it : — 

Procure some seed of the earliest kind, and select a 
piece of dry, sandj/, and tolerably rich ground, in a warm 
exposure. After preparing it as for peas, &c. form shallow 
drilis, about two inches deep, at the distance of six feet 
from each other; [four feet and a half, or five feet, will an- 
swer for the smallest sorts ;] drop the seeds therein two feet 
and a half asunder, and two grains in each place ; strew 
a little v/ood-ashes in the drills, and cover the seeds as you 
v/ould peas. As the plants advance in growth, earth them 
up two or three times. For an early crop, you may plant 
the seed, in the Middle States, about the first of May, 
[about the 10th in the Eastern States,] or ten days earlier, 
should the season prove very favourable. 

This method is exclusively intended for the culture of 
the small early kinds." 

INOCULATION, or BUDDING.—" The object in 
budding. is the same as in grafting, and depends on the 
same principle ; all the difference between a bud and a 
scion being that a bud is a shoot or scion in embryo. 

" A new application of budding has been made by 
Knight. It is that of transferring ' a part of the abundant 
blossom-buds from one tree to the barren branches of oth- 
ers.' He tried this first on roses, and afterwards on pears 
and peaches, with much success. 

Advantages of budding. — Budded trees are generally two 
years later in producing their fruit than grafted ones ; but 
the advantage of budding is that, where a tree is rare, a 
new plant can be got from every eye ; whereas by grafting 
it can only be got from every three or four eyes. I'here are 
also trees, which propagate much more readily by budding 
than grafting; and others, as most of the stone fruits, are 
apt to throw out gum when grafted. When grafting has 
been omitted, or has failed, in spring, budding comes in 
as an auxiliary in summer. 

Season of budding. — The operation of common bud- 
ding is performed any time from the beginning of July to 
the middle of August ; the criterion being the formation 
of buds in the axillae of the leaf of the present year. The 
buds are known to be ready by the shield or portion of 
bark, to which they are attached, easily parting with the 
wood. The buds preferred are generally those on the 
middle of a young shoot, as being neither so apt to run to 
wood as those at the extremity, nor so apt to lie dormant as 



166 



INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 



those at the lower end. In some cases, however, the buds 
from the middle and extremity of the shoots are to be re- 
jected, and those taken which are at the base of the annual 
shoots, as Knight {Hort, Trans, vol. iii. p. 135) found in 
the case of the walnut-tree. Scalope budding may be 
performed in the spring, or at any season. 

Stocks for budding may, in general, be much smaller 
than for grafting, as the operation may be performed on 
the same year's shoot. But it may also be performed on 
shoots or stems of several years' growth, and in such, by 
inserting a number of buds, a complete tree may be formed 
at once. Scalope budding may be performed on trees of 
considerable age. 

" Choice of buds. — For gathering the shoots containing 
the buds, a cloudy day, or an early or late hour, should be 
chosen, on this principle, that the leaves, being at these 
periods in a less active state of perspiration, suffer least 
from being separated from their parent plant. They are 
preserved fresh, and may be sent a great distance by 
inserting their ends in water or moist moss ; though in 
general they should be used as soon after gathering as pos- 
sible ; indeed, as in grafting and inarching, the whole ope- 
ration ought to be performed with the greatest celerity. 

" Kinds of budding. — Professor Thouin enumerates tv»^en- 
ty-three species and varieties of budding ; but we shall here 
describe only four, of which but one variety is in general 
use in Britain. 

" Shield-budding J or T budding^ is thus performed : — Fix 
on a smooth part on the side of the stock, rather from than 
towards the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, 
whether dwarf, whole or half standard-trees are desired ; 
then, with the budding-knife, make a horizontal cut across 
the rind, quite through to the firm wood ; from the mid- 
dle of this transverse cut, make a slit downward, perpen- 
dicularly, an inch or more long, going also quite through 
to the wood. This done, proceed with all expedition to 
take off a bud ; holding the cutting or scion in one hand, 
with the thickest end outward, and, with the knife in the 
other hand, enter it about half an inch or mere below the 
bud, cutting near half way into the wood of the shoot, con- 
tinuing it with one clean slanting cut, about half an inch or 
more above the bud, so deep as to take off part of the wood 
along with it, the whole about an inch and a half long ; 
then, directly, with the thumb and finger, or point of the 
knife, slip off the woody part remaining to the bud ; which 



INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 



167 



done, observe whether the eye or gein of the bud remains 
perfect ; if not, and a little hole appears in that part, it is 
improper, or, as gardeners express it, the bud has lost its 
root, and another must be prepared. This done, placing 
the back part of the bud or shield between your lips, expe- 
ditiously, with the flat haft of the knife, separate the bark 
of the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut, clear to 
the wood, for the admission of the bud, which directly slip 
down, close between the wood and bark to the bottom of 
the slit. The next operation is to cut off" the top part of 
the shield, and protrude granulated matter between it and 
the wood, s.o as to efl'ect a living union. The parts are now 
to be immediately bound round with a ligament of fresh 
bass, previously soaked in water to render it pliable and 
tough, beginning a little below the bottom of the perpen- 
dicular slit, proceeding upward, closely round every part, 
except just over the eye of the bud, and continue it a little 
above the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient 
to keep the w^hole tight, and exclude the air, sun, and 
wet. 

" Shield-budding reversed^ or reversed X budding^ differs 
from the former in having the transverse cut made at the 
bottom of the perpendicular slit, instead of at its top, and, of 
course, the shield is reversed in its position. This mode is 
represented as preferable to the other, by such as contend 
that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood ; but 
as this opinion is now generally considered as exploded, 
the first, or T mode, may justly be considered as the most 
scientific mode of budding. 

" Scalope-budding consists in paring a thin, tongue-shaped 
section of bark from the side of the stock ; and in taking a 
similar section from the shoot of buds, in neither case 
removing the wood. The section or shield containing the 
bud is then laid on the corresponding scollop in the stock ; 
its upper edge exactly fitted, as in shield-budding, and at 
least one of its edges, as in whip-grafting. After this, it is 
tied in the usual way. The advantages of this mode are, 
that it can be performed when the wood and bark do not 
separate freely ; on trees having very stiff, thick, suberose 
[cork-like] barks, and at any season of the year. Its dis- 
advantages are, that it requires longer time to perform the 
operation, and is less certain of success. The French gar- 
deners often bud their roses in this manner in spring ; and 
if they fail, they have a second chance in July, by using the 
common mode. 



168 



INOCULATION, OR BUDDING. 



" Budding with double ligatures is a mode invented by 
Knight, and described by him (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 194) 
as 'a new and expeditious mode of budding.' The opera- 
tions are performed in the manner first above described; 
but, instead of one ligature, two are applied, one above the 
bud inserted on the transverse section through the bark ; 
the other, which had no further office than that of securing 
the bud, was applied below in the usual way. As soon as 
the buds had attached themselves, the lower ligature was 
taken off, but the others were sufiered to remain. ' The 
passage of the sap upwards w as, in consequence, much ob- 
structed, and the inserted buds began to vegetate strongly 
in July, (being inserted in June;) and when these had 
afforded shoots about four inches long, the remaining liga- 
tures were taken off to permit the excess of sap to pass on, 
and the young shoots v.^ere nailed to the wall. Being there 
properly exposed to the light, their young w^ood ripened 
well, and afforded blossoms in the succeeding spring; and 
these would,' he adds, 'no doubt have afforded fruit; but 
that, leaving my residence, I removed my trees,' &c. 

" Future treatment. — In a fortnight, at furthest, after bud- 
ding, such as have adhered may be knovv^n by their fresh 
appearance at the eye ; and in three Vv eeks, all those which 
have succeeded will be firmly united with the stock, and, 
the parts being somewhat swelled in most species, the 
bandage must be loosened, and, a week or two afterwards, 
finally removed. The shield and bud now svv cU in com- 
mon with the other parts of the stock ; and nothing more 
requires to be done till spring, when, just before the rising 
of the sap, they are to be headed down close to the bud, 
by an oblique cut, terminating about an eighth or a quarter 
of an inch above the shield. In some cases, however, as 
in grafting, a few inches of the stalk is left for the first sea- 
son, and the young shoot tied to it for protection from the 
v^ajids." — Encyc. of Gardemng. 

Mr. Abner Landrum mentions a mode of treating the 
stock, and recently inserted bud, somev/hat different from 
that of Mr. Knight, as detailed above. Instead of Mr. 
Knight's method of using a strong ligature above the 
inserted bud, he adopts the following :— As soon as it can be 
Ptscertained that the bod will live, v/hich, he says, may be 
in about a w^eek, if the. stock be small, let it be instantly 
headed down, just above the bud to be nourished. If the 
stock be large, amputate the principal branches ; and the 
consequence will be, an immediate bursting of all the latent 



INSECTS. 



169 



buds, together with the inoculated one. As the inoculated 
branches multiply, diminish the original one till nothing 
remains but the new tree. — iV. E, Farmer^ vol. i. p. 146. 

Mr. Buel, of Albany, in a note to A Treatise on Gar- 
dening^ written by Mr. Armstrong, says, "The modern, 
and, from experience, I do not hesitate to call it the best, 
method, is, to insert the bud without separating the wood from 
it, I have budded, the two last years, in June. If thus in- 
serted early, and the stocks headed down when the liga- 
tures are removed, the buds often make half a year's growth 
the same season, and are not so apt to suffer from the 
severity of the winter, as those which remain dormant." — 
Mem. of N. Y. Board of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 17. 

INSECTS. — It would far transcend our limits to give 
even a brief description of the various sorts of insects which 
injure gardens, cultivated fields, &c., and destroy the best 
productions of our soil. We shall, theiefore, confine our- 
selves to stating, briefly, some of the most approved modes 
of counteracting the ravages, and effecting the destruction, 
of a few of those which are most injurious to the cultivator. 

The preventive operations are those of the best culture, 
in the most extensive sense of the term, including vdiat re- 
lates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation, and climate. 
If these are carefully attended to, it will seldom happen, 
that any species of insect will effect serious and permanent 
injury. Vegetables, which are vigorous and thrifty, are not 
apt to be injured by wwms, flies, bugs, &c. Fall plough- 
ing, by exposing worms, grubs, the larv^ae of bugs, beetles, 
&c., to the intense frosts of our winters, is very beneficial. 
Insects may be annoyed, and, oftentimes, their complete 
destruction eflected, by sprinkling over them, by means of 
a syringe, watering-pot, or garden-engine, simple water, 
soap-suds, tobacco-water, decoctions of elder, especially of 
the dwarf kind, of walnut leaves, bitter and acrid herbs, 
pepper, lye of v/ood-ashes, or solutions of pot and pearl 
ashes, water impregnated with salt, tar, turpentine, &:c. ; or, 
they may be dusted with sulphur, quick-lime, and other 
acrid substances. Loudon says, " Saline substances, mixed 
with water, are injurious to most insects with tender skins, 
as the worm and slug; and hot water, where it can be 
applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more 
powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees 
will not injure plants, v/hose leaves are expanded, and, in 
some degree, hardened ; and water at 200 degrees, or up- 
wards, may be poured over leafless plants. The effects of 
15 



170 



INSECTS. 



insects may also be palliated on one species of plant, by 
presenting to them another^ which they prefer : thus wasps 
are said to prefer carrots, the berries of the yew, and the 
honey of the hoya, to grapes ; honey, or sugared water, to 
ripe fruit, and so on. One insect or animal may also be set 
to eat another, as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys for 
the same purpose, and caterpillars and ants for aphides, 
and so on." 

The Rev. Mr. Falconer, one of the correspondents of the 
Bath Agricultural Society, strongly recommends soap-suds, 
both as a manure and antidote against insects. He observes, 
that " This mixture of an oil and an alkali has been more 
generally know^n than adopted as a remedy against the in- 
sects which infest wall fruit-trees. It will dislodge and de- 
stroy the insects which have already formed their nests, and 
bred among the leaves. When used in the early part of the 
year, it seems to prevent the insects from settling upon them." 
He prefers soap-suds to lime-water, because lime soon 
^' loses its causticity, and with that its efficacy, by exposure 
to air, and must, consequently, be frequently applied ; and 
to the dredging of the leaves with the fine dust of ^vood- 
ashes and lime, because the same effect is produced by the 
mixture, without the same labour, and is obtained without 
any expense." He directs to make use of a common 
garden-pump for sprinkling trees with soap-suds, and says, 
if the water of a washing cannot be had, a quantity of pot- 
ash, dissolved in w^ater, may be substituted, and that the 
'washing of the trees w4th soap-suds twice a week, for three 
or four weeks, in the spring, will be sufficient to secure 
them from aphides, &c. 

Other modes of counteracting the effects of insects are 
pointed out in treating of the plants w^hich are most liable 
to be injured by them. We shall, however, make some 
remarks on a few of those w^hicli are most common and 
injurious to the interests of the cultivator. 

Canker-worm. — We shall not attempt to give either a 
description or the natural history of the canker-worm, but 
refer to Professor Peck's Memoir on the subject, (which 
was originally published in the Mass, Agricultural Repository 
and republished in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. v. p. 393,) and di- 
rect our attention, exclusively, to the remedies, w hich have 
been used or suggested to preserve fruit-trees from this for-* 
midable enemy. 

The female of this insect comes out of the ground late 
in the fall, early in the spring, or, sometimes, during a pexi- 



INSECTS, 



171 



od of mild, open weather, in winter. Those which rise 
in autumn or in winter are less numerous than those which 
ascend in spring ; but, being very prolific, they do vsiuch 
injury. One method of preventing the ravages of the 
worm is to bar the ascent of the females up the stem of 
the tree. This has generally been attempted by tarring ; 
of which there are several modifications : — 

1. A strip of linen or canvass is put round the body of 
the tree, before the females begin their ascent, and well 
smeared with tar. The insects, in attempting to pass this 
barrier, stick fast, and perish. But this process, to com- 
plete the desired effect, must be commenced about the first 
of November, and the tarring continued, when the weather 
is mild enough to permit the worms to emerge from the 
ground, till the latter end of May, or till the time of their 
ascent is past. It is necessary to fill the crevices in the 
bark with clay mortar, before the strip of linen or canvass 
is put on, that the insects may not pass under it. Having 
put on the strip, which should be at least three inches wide, 
draw it close, fasten the ends together strongly, then tie a 
thumb-rope of tow round the tree, close to the lower edge 
of the strip. The design of this is to prevent the tar from 
running down the bark of the tree, which would injure it. 
It should be renewed, in moderate weather, once a day, 
without fail. The best time is soon after sunset, because 
the insects are wont to pass up in the evening, and the tar 
will not harden so much in the night as the day. 

2. Another mode of tarring is to take two pretty wide 
pieces of board ; plane them ; make semi-circular notches in 
each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree ; and fasten 
them together securely at the ends, so that the most violent 
storms may not displace them. The crevices betwixt the 
boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or 
tow ; then smear the under-sides of the boards with tar. 
The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, 
will hold its tenacity the longer, and, therefore, need not 
be frequently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be 
less liable to be injured by the drippings of tar, by leaving 
a margin of two or three inches, on those parts of the 
boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is ap- 
plied. 

3. Another mode of blockading the paths of the insects, 
in their ascent up the trees, is to enclose them with collars, 
or circular slips of tin. Of this method we have seen some 
notices, but no description. We presume, however, that 



172 



INSECTS. 



the pieces of tin are shaped, and fitted to the trees, some- 
what like the boards above-mentioned, and perhaps, if the 
outer rims of the collars were curved, or bent downwards, 
they might present obstacles, which the worms could not 
pass, even if no tar was applied. We fear that this 
method would prove too expensive for general adoption, 
but would solicit further information on this subject from 
those who have a practical knowledge of its application 
and results, 

4. Another method, proposed by Dr. Jeremiah Spof- 
ford, of Bradford. Mass., is, to spread mercurial ointment 
( Unguentum hydrargyri) upon strips of woollen cloth, or 
narrow lists, such as are cut from the edges of broadcloth, 
and apply them closely round the trees, having first made 
the bark smooth where it is not so, that none of the grubs, 
or females that deposit the eggs, from which the worm? 
are produced, may pass under the band or strip, which 
contains the ointment. Dr. Spofford observes that " the 
advantages, of using the unguentum over any mode in 
common use are obvious. While tar requires to be renew- 
ed every night, that it may catch and hold the grub, merely 
by its tenacity, tius mode requires preparing but once a 
year, and will be growing stronger for a long time, by an 
increased oxidation of the mercury, when exposed to the 
air." — See N. E, Farmer^ vol. iv. p. 377. 

The Mass. Agr, Repos. vol. iii. No. 4, contains some re- 
marks on the canker-worm, by the Hon. Johr; 1.* well, 
president of the Mass. Agr. Soc. from which the following 
is extracted : — 

^' I had the turf dug in around sixty apple-trees, and the 
earth laid smooth. I then took three hogsheads of effete, 
or air-slaked lime, and strewed it an inch thick round my 
trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots, so 
that the whole diameter of the opening was from four to 
six feet. 

^' I tarred these trees as well as the others, and, although 
I had worms or grubs on most that were not limed, I did 
not catch a single grub where the trees w^ere limed. 

" I do not speak with confidence. I am, however, 
strongly encouraged to believe the remedy perfect. It was 
ascertained by Professor Peck, that the insect seldom de- 
scended into th^ ground at a greater distance than three or 
four feet from the trunk, and to the depth of four inches, 
or that the greater part come within that distance. The 
lime is known to be destructive of all animal substances, 



INSECTS. 



173 



and I have little doubt that it actually decomposes and de- 
stroys the insect in the chrysalis state ; at least I hope that 
this is the case. 

There are many reasons, which should encourage a 
repetition of this experiment. The digging round the trees 
is highly useful to them, while tarring is very injurious. 
The expense is not great. A man can dig round fifty trees 
in one day. The lime is a most salutary manure to the 
tree. After the spot has been once opened and limed, the 
labour of keeping it open will not be great. Three hogs- 
heads of air-slaked lime, or the sweepings of a lime-store, 
will suffice for fifty trees, and will cost three dollars. As 
it is done but once a year, I think it cannot be half so ex- 
pensive as tarring. 

I repeat it, that I mention my experiments with great 
diffidence, as being the first of my own knowledge. It 
may induce several persons to try it in different places, and 
where trees are surrounded with others, which are treated 
differently. All I pray is, that it may prove successful, and 
relieve us from this dreadful scourge, which defaces our 
country, while it impoverishes and disappoints the farmer.'^ 

The remedies proposed by Professor Peck were, 1st, — 
Turning up the ground carefully in October, as far as the 
branches of a tree extend, to half a spade's depth, or five 
inches, so as completely to invert the surface. A great 
number of chrysalids would thus be exposed to the air and 
sun, and of course destroyed. 2dly, — Breaking the clods, 
and smoothing the surface v>dth a rake, and passing a heavy 
roller over it, so as to make it very hard, and without cracks. 
In grass-grounds, the sods should be turned with the grass- 
side down, and placed side by side, so as to be rolled. 
The winter's frosts would heave and crack a smooth sur- 
face, but it might be smoothed and hardened by the roller, 
or by other means, in March, v*^ith much less trouble, time, 
and expense, than rolling requires. As lime, when sla- 
ked, is reduced to an impalpable powder, and is thus well 
adapted to close the openings in the surface, Mr, P. was 
inclined to think its good effects are produced this way as 
well ashy its caustic qualities. — Thacherh Orchardist^ p. 93. 

John Kenrick, Esq., of Newton, Mass., proposed, be- 
tween the time in June after the worms had disappeared 
and the 20th of October, to take the whole of the soil sur- 
rounding the trees, to the extent at least of four feet from 
the trunk, and to a suitable depth, and cart it away to a 
distance frorn any trees, which the canker-worms are in the 
15* 



174 



INSECTS. 



habit of feeding on ; and returning an equal quantity of 
compost, or rich earth, intermixed with manure. 

A writer for the New England Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 327, 
states a case of an orchard having been preserved from 
canker-worms, by means of a large number of locust-trees, 
equal to about double the number of apple-trees. 

Mr. Roland Howard, of Easton, Mass., observes, (iV. E. 
Farmer^ vol. iv. p. 391,) that ^'A quantity of lime was col- 
lected from the sweepings of a lime-store, and spread on 
the ground around a certain apple-tree, some time in the 
month of November; (the foliage of which tree had been 
destroyed by the canker-worm the preceding summer ;) 
the ground being in a pulverized state, the lime was spread 
as far from the trunk of the tree as the drippings from the 
branches extended : the effect was stated to be the entire 
disappearance of the worm, and an increased vigour of the 
tree." The same vmter observes, that "moving the earth 
with a plough or hoe late in November, or beginning of 
December, has been found very efficacious in destroying 
them." This last mentioned remedy, if it wdll always 
prove efficient, wdli probably be the cheapest and most ex- 
pedient. But the worm must be capable of enduring a 
considerable degree of cold, or unerring instinct would not 
lead it from its dormitory in November (as it frequently 
does) to brave the rigours of winter on the stem or branch- 
es of the tree. We are inclined to believe, as well as to 
hope, that the application of lime, as above stated, will 
prove effectual; and, if so, it will probably be preferable to 
any mode of applying^ tar, or attacking the enemy above 
ground. 

When the insects have ascended, their numbers may be 
lessened by jarring or shaking the body or limbs of the 
tree, causing them to suspend themselves by the threads, 
which they spin from their bodies, and striking them off 
with a stick. It is said that those w^hich thus fall to the 
earth do not rise again. Whether they w^ould be able to 
resist the effects of a sprinkling vvith soap-suds, saline or 
bitter infusioiiS, &c. is more than we can say ; but we wish 
their povrers might be tested by showering them with those 
mixtures, hich are found to be the best antidotes against 
other insects. 

Caterpillar. — " This is one of the worst enemies to 
an orchard, when neglected ; but easily destroyed by a 
little attention. In the spring, when the nests are small, 
and tLe- insects young and tender, they never venture 



INSECTS. 



175 



abroad in the early part of the day, when the dew is on 
the trees, or in bad weather ; they may then be effectually 
destroyed by crushing them in the nest ; this attention, con- 
tinued a short time every spring, will destroy those in 
existence, and will prevent their increase in future years : 
if iefc till grown strong, they wander from their nests, and 
cannot be effectually overcome without great trouble and 
expense." — Coxe on Fruit Trees. 

The Hon. Timothy Pickering, in a letter to the corre- 
sponding secretary of the Massachusetts Agricultural Soci- 
ety, has recommended an implement for the destruction of 
caterpillars. It is made by inserting some hog's bristles 
between twisted wires, in such manner as to form a cylin- 
drical brush, which will present bristles on every side. 
This is attached to a pole of such length as the trees may 
require, and the caterpillars are brought down by it, and 
then crushed. Other methods have been proposed, such as 
casting over the tree a few handfuls of ashes, in the morning 
before the dew is dissipated from the foliage, or after a show- 
er of rain. A strong whitewash of fresh stone-lime, applied 
by the means of a mop, or sponge fixed to the end of a 
pole, strong soap-suds, spirits of turpentine, a little oil of any 
kind, particularly blubber oil, are likewise fatal to the in- 
sects. But, perhaps, the most effectual remedy is the hand^ 
by which the insects may easily be removed at an early 
stage ; but if this be neglected, it is thought that the next 
best remedy is the use of Col. Pickering's brush as above. 
In applying either of these remedies, care must be taken 
to choose that part of the day, when the caterpillars are in 
their nests. They rarely quit them till nine o'clock, and 
generally return to them again about twelve. 

CuRcuLio. — This is a small bug, or beetle, which perfo- 
rates the young fruit of the pear, apple, and all stone fruits, 
and deposits its eggs in them. The eggs soon hatch, and a 
small maggot is produced, which feeds either on the pulp 
of the fruit, or on the kernel of the seed ; for the tastes and 
habits of the different species are not similar. In the stone 
fruits, this injury destroys their growth, and they fall with 
their little enemy within them. The insect retreats into the 
earth, and passes the winter in the chrysalis state, and comes 
forth just as the young fruit is forming, or the petals of the 
flowers are falling, to renew its mischievous labours. 
This insect continues its depredations from the first of May 
until autumn. Dr. James Tilton, of Wilmington, Dela- 
ware, in an article on this subject; published in the Ameri* 



176 



INSECTS. 



can editions of Willich^s Domestic Encydopediaj observe* 
that " Our fruits, collectively estimated, must thereby be 
depreciated more than half their value* ;" and adds, in his 
directions for destroying the insect, ^' All the domestic ani- 
mals, if well directed, contribute to this purpose. Hogs, 
in a special manner, are qualified for the work of extermi- 
nation. In large orchards, care should be taken that the 
stock of hogs is sufficient to eat up all the early fruit which 
falls from May till August. This precaution will be more 
especially necessary in large peach orchards ; for, other- 
wise, when the hogs become cloyed with the pulp of the 
peach, they will let it fall out of their mouths, and content 
themselves with the kernel, which they like better ; and 
thus the curculio, escaping from their jaws, may -hide 
under ground till next spriug." 

" The ordinary fowls of a farm-yard are great devourers 
of beetles. Poultry, in general, are regarded as carnivo- 
rous in the summer, and therefore cooped some time before 
they are eaten. Every body knows with what avidity ducks 
seize on the tumble-bug, (Scarabceus carnifex^) and it is 
probable the curculio is regarded, by all fowls, as an 
equally delicious morsel. Therefore it is that the smooth 
stone fruits, particularly, succeed much better in lanes and 
yards, where poultry run without restraint, than in gardens 
and other enclosures, where fowls are excluded." 

Instead of turning swine into orchards, to pick up the 
fruit which falls, and thus destroy the worm.s which it con- 
tains, it will often be found most expedient to gather such' 
fruit, and ^ive it to swine in pens, &c., either raw, or, what 
would be better, boiled. If such measures were generally 
taken, with fruit which falls spontaneously, as to prevent 
the insects, which generally cause it to drop prematurely, 
from escaping into the ground, the worms, which destroy 
one half our fruit, and very much deteriorate a cousiderable 
part of the other half, would soon be extirpated from our 
orchards and fruit-gardens. 

Aphis, Plant-louse, Puceron, or Vine-fretter. — " This 
genus of insects comprises many species and varieties, 
which are denominated from the plants they infest. The 
males are winged, and the females without wings : they 
are viviparous, producing their young alive, in the spring; 
and also oviparous, laying eggs in autumn. Water, dashed 
with force from a syringe, [or garden engine,] will prove 
as de&tnictive to them as any thing, when on trees ; and 
smaller plants m^y be washed with lime-water, with tobac- 



INSECTS. 



1711 



co-water, itli elder leaves infused in water, or with com- 
mon soap-suds, any of which will destroy the insects." — 
Loudon. " Tie up some iiour of sulphur in a piece of mus- 
lin, or fine linen, and with this the leaves of young shoots 
or plants should be dusted, or it may be thrown on them by 
means of a common swan's-down puff, or even a dredging 
box. Sulphur has also been found to promote the health 
of plants, on which it was sprinkled, and that peach trees, 
in particular, were remarkably improved by it" — Dam, 
Encyc. " In green-houses they are readily destroyed by 
the smoke of tobacco, or of sulphur. But in the open air, 
fumigation, though much in vogue many years since, is of 
no avail. The best remedy is the simplest. Soap-suds, 
forcibly applied, will, after one or two applications, effectu- 
ally destroy them, without apparent injury to the plant."— 
Deane, 

A writer for the New England Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 9, after 
stating a number of experiments with soap-suds, for destroy 
ing aphides, which were unsuccessful, or but partially suc- 
ceeded, says, " I was led to conclude, that it is not sufficient 
to wet the upper side of the leaves, thinking to make them 
disagreeable or poisonous to the insect, but that they must 
be well drenched or immersed in the suds. I therefore 
applied again the same remedy ; but with this diflference, — 
instead of sprinkling the upper side of the branches, I car- 
ried a pailful of suds from tree to tree, and, bending the 
tops of small trees, and the branches of larger ones, im- 
mersed all the parts infested with lice, holding them in the 
liquor for a moment, that none might escape being well 
wet. On examining the trees the next day, the greater 
part of the lice were destroyed. It was found necessary to 
repeat the same process once or twice, with suds not too 
weak, say about two or three ounces of soap to a gallon of 
water." Another writer in the same paper, p. 10, says, 

I have applied soap-suds to my apple-trees, in order to 
kill the lice. It will be sufficient for me to say, that just 
sprinkling them with suds will not kill them ; neither will 
dipping the bra.nches, which are infested with them, kill 
them. But dipping and holding them in as long as I can 
conveniently hold my breath, will destroy every one. The 
suds do not appear to injure the leaves. I tried suds made 
on purpose, and suds which had been used for family wash- 
ing. The latter answers the purpose much the best." It 
is possible to make soap-suds so strong as to kill the ten- 
der branches, as well as the insects which infest them. 



17B 



The proportion above-mentioned, of two or three ounces of 
soap to a gallon of water, is, probably, most advisable, 

CuT-ivoRM. — This is an ash-coloured worm, with a stripe 
almost black on its back. When fully grown it is about 
the size of a goose-quill, and about an inch an<i a quarter in 
length. They are very apt to eut off young cabbages, cau- 
liflowers, beets, &c. They never Tolnntarily appear on the 
surface of the ground in the day time, but may be found 
about an inch below it. In the night they make theif 
excursions, cut off the stems of young plants just at the top 
of the ground, and again bury themselves. 

Dr. Deane observed, I once prevented their depreda- 
tions in my garden, by manuring the soil with sea-mud^ 
newly taken from the flats. The plants generally escaped^ 
though every one was cut oiF in a spot of ground that lies- 
contiguous. From the success of thi& experiment, I con- 
clude that salt is very offensive or pernicious to them. 
Lime and ashes, in some measure, prevent their d<)ing mis- 
chief; but sea-water, salt, or brine, would be more effectu- 
al antidotes. The most effectual, and not a laborious 
remedy, even in field-culture, is to go round every morning,, 
and open the earth at the foot of the plant, and you will 
never fail to find the vv^orm at the root, within four inches.. 
Kill him, and you will save not only the other plants of 
your field, but, probably, many thousands in future years.'* 

There is some danger in making use of salt, brine, or 
sea-water, of injuring the plants in attempting to destroy 
insects ; and we should, therefore, generally prefer decoc- 
tiims of elder, walnut leaves, or tobacco. Mr. Preston, of 
Stockport, Penn., preserved his cabbage-plants^ from cut- 
worms, by wrapping a hickory-leaf round the stem, between 
the roots and leaves. — N. E, Fanner ^ vol. iii. p. 369. The 
Hon. Mr. Fiske, of Worcester, Mass., in speaking of this 
insect, says, " To search out the spoiler, and kill him, is the 
very best course ; but, as his existence is not known except 
by his ravages, I make a fortress, for my plants, with paper,, 
winding it conically and firmly above the root, and securing 
it by a low embankment of earth. ''^ — N. E, Farmer^ vol. iv. 
p. 362. 

Lice on apple-trees. — There is a species of insect in- 
festing apple-trees, which may be styled the hark4ouse^ to 
distinguish it from the plant-louse^ or aphis. It is, in form, 
like half a kernel of rye, but much smaller, with the flat 
side sticking to the bark of the tree. Jesse Buel, Esq., of 
AlbiVfxv, gives the following statement of Jus mode of 



INSECTS. 



179 



destroying them : — " In June last, I observed directions 
in the Npw England Farmer for destroying the parasitic 
«nemy; and, that being the particular time to make the 
-application, { immediately set about it. For this purpose^ 
I took eight parts of water and two of soft soap, and mixed 
with these lime enough to make a thick whitewash. With 
a whitewash and paint brush, I put this upon th^ trunks 
and limbs of trees, as high as was practicable, filling the 
cracks in the bark, and covering the whole surface. The 
effect has been not only to destroy most of the lice, but to 
^ive the trees ah improved and vigorous appearance. The 
outer bark, which, from a stinted growth, had become 
rough and hard, has, in a measure, fallen off in flakes, and 
disclosed a soft, smooth bark, the sure indication of health.^' 

E. Perley, Esq. published a description of this insect m 
the Mass, Agr. Repos. vol. iii. p. 114, and «ays, "The 
application which I have found most effectual is, washing 
the trees with lie or brine.'' He observes, that " they 
resemble blisters, and are near the colour of the bark of 
the tree. These blisters contain from ten to thirty nits or 
eggs each, in form like a snake's egg ; which, in a common 
reason, begin to hatch about the 25th of May, and finish 
^bout the 10th of June. These nits produce a white animal- 
<jule, resembling a louse, so small^ that they are hardly per- 
ceptible by the naked eye ; which, immediately after they 
^re hatched, open a passage at the end of the blister, and 
scrawl out on the bark of the tree, and there remain, with 
little motion, about ten days, when they stick themselves 
last to the bark of the tree, and die. From this little car- 
tiass arises a small speck of blue mouldy which is most plain 
to be seen between the 10th and 20th of June, and con- 
tinues about fifteen days, and then gradually wears off 
until the old carcass appears, which, by this time, is formed 
into a new blister, and contains the spawns or nits before- 
mentioned. These blisters prevent the circulation of the 
sap, and prove as fatal to the tree as the canker-worm." 

" A correspondent of the Caledonian Horticultural Society 
recommends clay paint for the destruction of insects, and 
the mildew on fruit-trees. The instructions are, that you 
take a quantity of the most tenacious brown clay that can 
be obtained ; diffuse among it as much soft water as will 
bring it to the consistence of cream or paint ; pass it through 
a fine sieve, so that it may be made perfectly smooth and 
uactuous, and freed from any gritty particles. With a 
painter's brush, dipped in the clay paint, go carefully over 



180 



INSECTS* 



the whole tree, not excepting the young shoots. This 
layer, when it becomes dry, forms a hard crust, which, 
enveloping the insects closely, completely destroys them, 
without doing the smallest injury either to the bark or 
Duds." — Thacher^s Orchardist, Solutions of potash and 
decoctions of tobacco are likewise recommended. 

Apple-tree borer. — Saperda bivitata.— The scientific 
description of this very pernicious insect is thus given by 
Professor Say, of Philadelphia : — " Hoary ; above, light- 
brown, with two broad, white fillets. Inhabits the United 
States. Bodij^ white; eyes^ fuscous; a small spot on the 
vertex, and another behind each eye, light-brown ; anienncBj 
moderate, slightly tinged with bluish ; thorax, light-brown, 
with two oroad, white lines, approaching before; elytrUy 
light brown, irregularly punctured ; a broad, white, longi- 
tudinal line on each, nearer to the suture than to the outer 
edge. Length, from one half to seven tenths of an inch- 
A very pretty in.sect. In the larvae state, it is very injuri- 
ous to the apple-tree, boring into the wood." — Journal of 
the Academy of Sciences, Phil, vol. iii. p. 409. 

Professor Say, in a letter to Jesse Buel, Esq., says, " You 
state, that it leaves the pupa, and becomes perfect in the 
latter part of April, and that the eggs are deposited beneath 
the surface of the soil. These two circumstances ascer- 
tained, I would recommend the application, early in May, 
or the latter part of April, of common bricklayer's mortar, 
around the base of the tree, so as to cover completely the 
part, and its immediate vicinity, where the deposit is made. 
This preventive was successfully employed by Mr. Shot- 
well, against the attacks of the peach-tree insect, (see 
American Farmer , vol. vi. p. 14,) and I see no reason why 
it should not be equally efficacious in the preservation of 
the apple-tree." — Mem, of N. Y, Board of Agriculture, 
vol. iii. p. 479. 

The Mass, Agr, Repos. vol. v. p. 360, contains a paper 
on this insect, by John Prince, Esq., by which it appears 
that worms of this kind are got rid of by digging round 
the tree, and clearing away the earth to the roots, and then, 
with a sharp-pointed knife, a chisel, or a gouge, (and a small 
wire to probe, if they are deep in the tree,) they may easi- 
ly be destroyed." After taking out the worms, the wounds 
should be covered xyver with grafting-clay and a large pro- 
portion of dry wood-ashes mixed, and the earth then 
returned to the tree. The process for cleansing the trees 
from borers should be performed in the spring, as soon as 



INSECTS. 



181 



the frost is out of the ground, or at least before the month 
oi June, as the perfect insect escapes before that time. 

Slug-worm, or naked snail. — These reptiles appear on 
the leaves of fruit-trees in the month of July. Professor 
Peck has ascertained that they are the progeny of a small 
black fly, which deposits its eggs in the leaf in the months 
of May and June. They may be destroyed by means of 
lime, sprinkled over the leaves in the form of powder. 
For this purpose, a w^ooden box, of convenient size, having 
it& bottom perforated with numerous small holes, is to be 
filled with lime. This, being mounted on a pole, and sha- 
ken over the tree, distributes the lime among the leaves, 
and the skigs are immediately destroyed. The labour is 
very trivial ; a man may cover a large tree in three or four 
minutes ; and the desired effect is certain. Fine earth, 
shaken through a basket or perforated box, will answer 
as well. 

" Another remedy, it is said, will prove equally effectual. 
It is a strong infusion of tar, made by pouring water on tar, 
and suffering it to stand two or three days, when it be- 
comes strongly impregnated. This, if sprinkled over th^ 
leaves by means of an engine, will kill these vermin instan 
taneously. A strong decoction of tobacco will probably 
produce the desired effect, and tanners' bark, put round the 
tree, it is said, will have a salutary tendency as a prevent- 
ive."^ — Thacher^s Orchardist. 

Forsyth recommends watering the ground, w^here these 
insects are, with soap-suds and urine, mixed with tobacco- 
water. Ducks, admitted into a garden, will destroy all 
within their reach. 

Wire-worm, gt Red-worm. — This insect is slender, and 
usually about an inch long, with a hard coat, and a pointed 
head. Mr. William Moody, of Saco, (Maine,) in a com- 
munication to Hon. Josiah Quincy, published in Mass. 
Agr. Repos. vol. iv. p. 353, observes, " I am persuaded, 
from experience, that sea-sand, put under corn or potatoes 
with manure, or spread on the land, will go far, if not 
wholly, to the total destruction of these destructive worms, 
on which nothing else seems to have any effect. It has a 
beneficial effect spread on land before ploughing, or even 
after land is planted with corn or potatoes, not only to de- 
stroy the wire-worm aPxd other insects, but to increase the 
crop. With my neighbours a load of sea-sand is considered 
as preferable to a load of the best manure, to mix in with 
16 



182 



JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. 



their common bam-manure, or to spread on their gardens 
and low flat land." 

Probably sea-mud or sea-water ^vould produce good ef- 
fects as preservatives against this and other insects, 

A correspondent of the New England Farmer^ vol. iv. p. 
284, recommends, from actual experiment, the soaking of 
seed-corn in a solution of copperas, to preserve it against 
the wire-worm, other insects, and birds. He says, " The 
plan which I pursued was as follows : — I used about one 
and a half pound of copperas in three pecks of corn* 
I made the water warm, and soaked the corn full forty-eight 
hours before planting, putting in corn and copperas as we 
used it out. It is not easy to use too much copperas ; I 
believe the more the better." This method has been fre- 
quently and successfully put in practice. See N. E, Far- 
mer^ vol. V. p. 310. 

The Striped bug, or Yellow fly. — This is a small in- 
sect of the coleoptera order, or such as have crustaceom 
elytra^ or wing cases, like the beetle. The elytra of this 
bug are striped with yellow and black. They prey on the 
young plants of cucumbers, melons, squashes, and others 
of the cucurbitacecB species. " These insects may be consid- 
erably thinned by killing them in a dewy morning, when 
they have not the free use of their wings, and cannot well 
escape. But nothing that I have tried has proved so effec- 
tual as sifting or sprinkling pow^dered soot upon the plants 
when the morning dew remains on them. This forms a 
bitter covering for the plants, which the bugs cannot en- 
dure the taste of" — Deane, "We would recommend 
sprinkling the plants with a little sulphur or Scotch snuff." 
— Farmer^s Assistant, But the surest defence against these 
insects is, enclosing the plants with a frame, and a muslin 
or gauze covering, as recommended page 91. 

JERUSALEM ARTlCJiOKE, —Helianthus tuherosus. 
— The Jerusalem artichoke is a hardy perennial, a native 
of Brazil, and is of the same genus as the sun-flower. It 
is propagated and cultivated like the potato. We have 
been informed that this root will grow and produce a 
profitable crop on poor land, and without manure ; though, 
with deep ploughing and good manuring, its culture would 
probably be attended with greater profit. It was much 
esteemed before potatoes were known. The epithet 
Jerusalem is a corruption of the Italian word Girasole 
(from girarey to turn, and sol) or sun-flower; the name arti- 



JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. Ib^ 

choke is bestowed from the resemblance in flavour, which 
the roots have to the bottoms of artichokes. It is superior 
to the potato in being more hardy, and not liable to be in- 
jured b}^ frost ; but we believe it contains somewhat less 
nutritive matter. Its tops are large, and may make a valua- 
ble addition to the farm-yard, of a substance which may 
be converted into manure. From the circumstances of its 
nourishing in a poor soil, and producing large leaves and 
stalks, there can be no doubt that it derives much food for 
plants from the atmosphere, which by its decay is impart- 
ed to the soil on which it grows, or on which, after rotting, 
it is spread as manure. There is no plant which more 
completely shades the ground, and it must in that way en- 
rich it. It will flourish in the shade of trees, buildings, 
&c. where other plants will not thrive. We believe there 
are thousands of acres of land in the more populous parts 
of the United States, which are now considered as not 
worth cultivation, which would produce considerable quan- 
tities of the Jerusalem artichoke, with no other trouble 
than once planting, and digging the roots from time to time 
as they are wanted. 

Dr. Darwin says that the Jerusalem artichoke will not 
ripen its seeds in Great Britain, (and we do not believe it 
will in New England,) by being suffered to grow in the 
open air under ordinary cultivation. But by forcing the 
plant in pots, hot-houses, &c., perhaps seeds might be 
obtained. This would, probably, be desirable, for it is 
supposed that all plants degenerate if propagated merely 
by slips, roots, cuttings, &c., without having recourse to 
seeds. Potatoes should be renewed from the seed, at least 
once in twelve or fourteen years, or they will degenerate ; 
and probably Jerusalem artichokes might become more 
valuable by the same means. Planting large and fair roots, 
with suitable soil and culture, will retard this degeneracy, 
but, we believe, not wholly prevent it. 

" Use, — The roots are esteemed a wholesome, nutritious 
food, and are eaten boiled, mashed with butter, or baked 
in pies, and have an excellent flavour. Planted in rows 
from east to west, the upright herb of the plant affords a 
salutary shade to such culinary vegetables as require it in 
the mid-summer months, as lettuce, turnips, strawberries, 
&c." — Loudon, 

The second volume of Memoirs o f the New York Board of 
Agriculture contains remarks on this root by Levi McKean, 
of Dutchess, in which he gives it as his opinion that arti- 



184 LANDSCAPES AND PICTURESQUE GARDENS. 



chokes are the best suited for cultivation in this climate as a 
crop for hogs, sheep, and dairies, of any article that we have 
yet tried ; and, besides the use of this crop for stock, which 
many writers consider to be equal to potatoes, they are also 
recommended highly as an article of human diet. It is true 
that, when boiled, they do not possess that peculiar farina- 
ceous quality, that is so much esteemed in the best sorts 
of potatoes ; but it is said that, when roasted, they are a 
very delicate article for the table, their taste then resembling 
the ground-nut of this country. 

The only objection we have heard stated to this vegeta- 
ble as an article of field-culture is, that, when once suffered 
to enter, it will take exclusive possession of a soil ; and 
thus, when a change of crops is desired, becomes a most 
troublesome weed. But by turning in a sufiicient number 
of hogs, the artichokes may be entirely eradicated ; and, 
probably, a poor soil, which would answ^er no other pur- 
pose of culture, might be planted with the Jerusalem 
artichoke, and converted into a permanent pasture for 
swine. If not overstocked with the animals, the plants 
would keep po«isession of the soil, which they would meli- 
orate ; and when it should be wished to change the crop, 
turn in hog& enough to root out the artichokes. 

LANDSCAPES and PICTURESQUE GARDENS.— 
The following article was written expressly for this work, 
by Mr. A. Parmentier, of New York, a French horticultur- 
ist of much taste and science : — 

It has been reserved for the good taste of our age to 
make many advantageous changes in the embellishment 
of gardens, and to reinstate Nature in the possession of 
those rights from which she has too long been banished 
by an undue regard to symmetry. 

Our ancestors gave to every part of a garden all the ex- 
actness of geometric forms : they seem to have known of 
no other way to plant trees, except in straight lines ; a sys- 
tem totally ruinous to the beauty of the prospect. We 
now see how ridiculous it was, except in the public gar- 
dens of the city, to apply the rules of architecture to the 
embellishment of gardens. 

The majestic trunk is now allowed the liberty of dis- 
playing its form, or of following in its vigorous shoots the 
plan of nature. Gardens are now treated like landscapes, 
the charms of which are not to be improved by any rules 
of art. 

The advantages of these changes are so manifest, and 



LANDSCAPES AND PICTURESQUE GARDENS. 185 

SO well appreciated, that further proofs seem unnecessary. 
For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beau- 
ties and charms of nature, who would prefer a symmetric 
garden to one in modern taste ; who would not prefer to 
walk in a plantation irregular and picturesque, rather than 
in those straight and monotonous alleys, bordered with 
mournful box, the resort of noxious insects ? 

Where is the person, gifted with any taste, who would 
not choose those alleys that wind without constraint, in 
preference to those dull straight lines which can be meas- 
ured by one glance of the eye, and the monotony of which 
is unvaried ? Instead of this, the modern style presents to 
you a constant change of scene, perfectTy in accordance 
with the desires of a man who loves, as he continues his 
walk, to have new objects laid open to his view. To un- 
derstand this style of a garden requires a quick perception 
of the beauties of a landscape, without which the existing 
plantation might be destroyed, instead of being used. 
Limited prospects, and neighbouring houses and buildings 
not worthy of notice, should be concealed, and the view 
left open to those objects which strike the eye of the be- 
holder agreeably. The front of the house ought always to 
be uncovered^ the principal point of view seen, or conjec- 
tured. A vast idea of the proprietor should be given, and 
this can only be done by a grand plan, in which nothing 
niggardly is to be seen. 

Rows of trees should never be planted in front of the 
house, particularly when the house has been built in good 
taste, and at great expense. It may be objected to this, 
that the shade is wanted, and this I would not exclude ; 
but, instead of one row in front, I would plant thick groups 
of trees on the three other sides, and leave the front open 
to public view ; otherwise the taste and expense are, in a 
great measure, thrown away. 

When you choose the situation of a country-house, let 
it be at some distance from the public road, so that the 
road which leads to it may give a good idea of the extent 
of the proprietor's domains, and care should be taken that 
the road is proportioned to this extent. It ought to be 
from eight to ten feet wide, so that carriages may pass, and 
gently serpentine. This winding should have a reason — 
that is to say — some groups of trees should be so placed as 
to appear to be the cause of it : for naturally the road would 
have led directly to the house, but the person walking, when 
he observes these groups of trees, will see at once why it 



186 LANDSCAPES AND PICTURESQUE GARDENS. 



does not Besides, he will be agreeably amused by the 
variety of views which will show to advantage the manner 
in which the artist has executed his plan, and the choice 
he has made of a situation. 

If the house is placed on an eminence or side-hill, the 
prospect will be much more beautiful if you can enjoy 
the view of water : and, to add to the whole effect, and 
facilitate the labours of the artist, it is desirable that a grass- 
plot should naturally present itself. 

The plantations and groups of trees near the house 
should be, if possible, of a deeper green ; — they would 
extend the view and the perspective, and produce the ef- 
fect of shades in a landscape-picture, where the groups of 
trees in front are of a darker shade, and seem to remove 
the perspective from the extremity of the landscape. For 
the same reason, the trees at the farther part of a park, or 
garden, should be those of a thin and light foliage. 

Plantations should consist of, besides merely ornamental 
trees, those fruit-trees which are high and of bright foliage. 
Their flowers in spring, and branches loaded with fruit in 
autumn, make them objects of great beauty and interest. 

The apple-tree alone, on account of its horizontal 
branches, should be confined to the orchard, where its 
useful products are ornamental and valuable. The most 
should be made of the agreeable and interesting views 
which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They 
may be made useful to the general plan by being represent- 
ed as the property of the proprietor. 

For this reason, I highly approve of blind fences, and 
live hedges. But fences, necessary as enclosures, should 
be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the es- 
tablishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable inter- 
ruption in the prospect. The judicious use of hermitages, 
arbours, cottages and rotundas will add to the effect, in 
picturesque gardens and ornamented farms. If you use 
these ornaments, place the hermitage in som^ retired spot : 
a small rivulet would be an appropriate and beautiful ac- 
companiment. The rustic arbour and cottage may occupy 
a place less secluded. An elegant rotunda should be seen 
from a distance, and on a hill or eminence. It should 
make a part of the establishment of a wealthy man, as well 
as pagoda*^ turrets, and Chinese towers. These ornaments 
are so expensive, that they are beyond the means of most 
peisons : but hermitages, arbours and cottages may generally 
be afforded, as there is little expense in their construction. 



LAVENDER. 



187 



Rustic bridges are very pretty where there is a stream, 
and they can be made of use ; but they have no preten- 
sions as mere accompaniments to a plantation. Obelisks, 
columns, &c. should be placed on elevated places. 

As to tombs and cemeteries, I should wish to banish them 
entirely from gardens. They always awaken melancholy 
reflections in old people, for they remind them of their ap- 
proaching end ; and a regard for their feelings should, I 
think, exclude from their places of resort every object 
which could have such an effect. 

Whilst on this subject, I will mention an anecdote of the 
celebrated Kent, architect of the English gardens, which 
will show to what extent this mania may be carried. He 
built a tomb in a park, and, to make the place still more 
gloomy, planted around it dead and mutilated trees ; but, 
notwithstanding the celebrity he had acquired, he was 
loaded with ridicule, and forced to displace the trees. 

LAVENDER. — Lavandula spica, — The lavender is a 
hardy under shrub, a native of the south of Europe. The 
plant rises two to four feet in height, with hoary, linear leaves, 
slightly rolled back at the edges : the flowers form terminat- 
ing spikes of a blue colour, and appear from July to Septem- 
ber. The leaves and flowers are powerfully aromatic. 

" Propagation and culture. — It is propagated by cuttings 
and slips, like rosemary ; it likes a dry soil, and may be 
planted either in distinct plants, two feet asunder, or to form 
a sort of hedge row, in one or more lines, especially where 
large supplies of flowers are required for distilling. The 
plants will advance in a close, branchy growth, from a foot 
and a half to two feet high, or more ; and, when estab- 
lished, will produce plenty of flowers in July and August. 
Gather them while in perfection, cutting the spikes ofl" close 
to the stem. Then give the plants occasional trimming, 
cutting off" the gross and rampant shoots of the year, and 
the decayed flower-spikes." Neill observes, " K lavender 
be planted in a dry, gravelly, or poor soil, its flowers have 
a powerful odour, and the severity of our winters has little 
efl*ect on it ; while, in a rich garden soil, though it grows 
strongly, it is apt to be killed, and the flowers have less 
perfume." 

" Use, — It is rather a medicinal plant than one used in 
cookery ; though a fev/ plants are kept in every garden. 
Imitation scent-bottles are made, by the ladies, of its fra- 
grant spikes. They are also put in paper bags, and placed 
among linen to perfume it. Lavender-water, a well-known 



188 



Layers. — leaves. 



perfume, is distilled from the flowers ; for which purpose the 
plant is extensively cultivated in different places." — Loudon, 
LAYERS. — Layers, in horticulture, denote certain ten- 
der shoots or sprigs of trees, which are buried in the ground 
till they have taken root, when they are separated from 
the parent stock, and become distinct plants. The opera- 
tion of layering should be commenced before the ascent of 
the sap, or delayed till the sap is fully up, to wit, early in 
spring, or in mid-summer. The shoot intended to be- 
come a new plant, is half separated from the parent plant, 
at a few inches from its extremity. If the cut or notch 
does not penetrate at lea^t half way through, some sorts of 
trees will not form a nucleus the first season ; on the other 
hand, if the notch be cut nearly through the shoot, a suffi- 
ciency of alburnum, or sap-wood, is not left for the ascent 
of the sap, and the shoot dies. In delicate sorts, it is not 
sufficient to cut a notch merely, because, in that case, the 
descending sap, instead of throwing out granulated matter, 
in the upper side of the wound, would descend by the entire 
side of the shoot ; therefore, besides a notch formed by cut- 
ting out a portion of bark and wood, the notched side is slit 
up at least one inch, separating it by a bit of twig, or small 
splinter of stone or potsherd. 

Mr. Armstrong says^ {Mem, of N. Y, Board of Agr. vol. 
iii. p. 15,) " This mode was probably suggested by observ- 
ing the habits peculiar to some trees and shrubs, (as the 
laurel and the currant,) of pointing their branches to the 
earth ; where, finding an habitual moisture, they strike 
root, and become distinct plants. In imitating this natural 
process, the artist notches the lower side of the branch, 
buries this in the earth, three or four inches deep, and 
keeps it down by a wooden crotchet. As this is done 
before the descent of the sap, the notch operates like a dam 
or obstruction to the descending juices, and forces them 
into a bulbous form, and granular substance, whence are 
emitted a mass of roots, necessary to the infant plant. When 
these are sufficiently formed, that part of the branch which 
binds them to the stem is severed, and the layer taken up 
and transplanted." For further particulars respecting the 
manipulation, &c.^ in this mode of propagation, see Encyc, 
of Gardening^ pp. 388, 389. 

LEAVES. — The leaves of trees, particularly of oak, may 
be employed adi mtageously to form hot-beds. Speechly, 
an eminent English gardener, gives the following account 
of his mode of using them : — 



LEAVES, 



189 



"After being raked into heaps, they should immediately 
be carried to some place near the hot-house, where they 
must lie to couch. I generally fence them round with 
charcoal hurdles, or any thing else, to keep them from 
being blown about the garden in windy weather. In this 
place we tread them well, and water them, in case they hap- 
pen to have been brought in dry. We make the heap six or 
seven feet in thickness, covering it over with old mats, or 
any thing else, to prevent the upper leaves from being 
blown away. In a few days the heap will come to a strong 
heat. For the first year or two that I used these leaves, I 
did not continue them in the heap longer than ten days or 
a fortnight; but in this I discovered a considerable incon- 
venience, as they settled so much, when got into the hot- 
house, as soon to require a supply. Taught by experience, 
I now let them remain in the heap for five or six weeks, 
by which time they are properly prepared for the hot-house. 
In getting them into the pine pits, if they appear dry, we 
water them again, treading them in layers exceedingly 
well, till the pits are quite full. We then cover the whole 
with tan, to the thickness of two inches, and tread it well, 
till the surface becomes smooth and even. On this we place 
the pine pots, in the manner they are to stand, beginning 
with the middle row first, and filling up the spaces between 
the pots with tan. In like manner we proceed to the next 
row, till the whole is finished ; and this operation is per- 
formed in the same manner as when tan only is used. 

" Thys prepared, they will continue a constant and regular 
heat for twelve months, without either stirring or turning ; 
and, if I may form a judgment from their appearance when 
taken out, (being always entire and perfect,) it is probable 
they w^ould continue their heat through a second year." 
After some further details, the same writer observes, " I 
believe that oak leaves are preferable to those of any other 
sort ; but I have found, by repeated trials, that the leaves 
of beecK, Spanish chestnut, and hornbeam, will answer the 
purpose very well. It seems that all leaves of a hard and 
firm texture are very proper ; but soft leaves, that soon de- 
cay, such as lime, sycamore, ash, and those of fruit-trees in 
general, are very unfit for this mode of practice." 

The superiority of oak leaves as a material for hot-beds, 
according to this writer, consists in the following particu- 
lars : — " They always heat regularly ; for, during the whole 
time that I have used them, which is near twenty-five 
years, I never once knew their heating with violence." 



190 



LEEK. 



The heat of oak leaves is constant ; whereas tanners' bark 
generally turns cold in a very short time, after its furious heat 
is gone off." " There is a saving in point of expense ; 
and decayed leaves make good manure ; whereas, rotten 
tan is experimentally found to be of no value." 

" Leaves mixed with dung," says Loudon, " make excel- 
lent hot-beds ; and beds compounded in this manner pre- 
serve their heat much longer than when made entirely with 
dung. In both cases, the application of leaves will be a 
considerable saving of dung," &c. 

LEEK. — Allium porrum. — The leek is a hardy biennial, 
a native of Switzerland. The stem rises three feet, and is 
leafy at bottom ; the leaves an inch wide. 

The varieties are, 

The narrow-leaved/ or Flanders burgh leek; 

leek; The broad-leaved; or laJl; London 

Tlie Scotch; or flag, or Mussel- leek. 

Propagation, — " From seed ; and, for a bed four feet wide 
by eight in length, one ounce is requisite." 

Soil and site, — The soil should be light and rich, lying 
on a dry sub-soil. A rank soil does not suit it, so that, 
when manure is necessary, w^ell reduced dung, mixed with 
road drift, is better than dung alone. The situation should 
be open. Let the ground be dug in the previous autumn, 
ready for sowing in the spring. For the principal crop 
allot beds four or five feet wide, and sow in drills, about six- 
teen inches apart. . A small crop may be sown thinly with 
a main crop of onions, and when the latter are drawn off, 
the leeks will have room for full growth." 

Times of sowing. — " A small first crop may be sown as 
soon as the ground is dry enough, and the weather suffi- 
ciently mild in the spring. The principal crop should be 
sown the last of April or the beginning of May." 

Course of culture. — " When the plants are three or four 
inches high, weed them clean, and thin them where too 
much crowded. Water well in dry, hot weather. The 
leek is much improved in size by transplanting ; and those 
designed for that purpose will be fit to remove when from 
six to ten inches high. For this purpose, take out a quan- 
tity, regularly, from the seed-bed, either in showery 
weather, or after watering the ground. Trim the long, 
weak tops of the leaves, and the roots and fibres, and plant 
them by dibble, in rows, from nine to twelve inches asunder, 
by six or eight inches in the row, inserting them nearly down 
to the leaves, or with the neck part mostly into the ground, 



LETTUCE. 



191 



to whiten it a proportionate length. Press the earth to the 
fibres with the dibber, but leave the stem as loose as pos- 
sible, and, as it were, standing in the centre of a hollow 
cylinder. Give water if the weather be dry. Those re- 
maining in the seed-bed thin to six or eight inches distance. 
Keep the whole clear from weeds. In hoeing, loosen the 
ground about the plants, to promote their free, vigorous 
growth. Some plant in hollow drills, and earth up, as in 
celery culture, which produces very large stems.'' 

To save seed. — " Transplant some best, full plants, early 
in the spring, in a sunny situation, or in a row near a south 
fence. They will shoot in summer, in single, tall seed- 
stalks. Support them, as necessary, with stakes ; and they 
will produce ripe seed in September. Cut the ripe heads 
with part of the stalk to each ; tie two or three together, 
and hang up under cover, to dry and harden the seed 
thoroughly, when it may be rubbed out, cleaned, and put 
by for future service." — Abercrombie, 

Use, — The whole plant is used in soups and stews ; but 
the blanched stem is most esteemed. Leeks formerly con- 
stituted an ingredient in the dish called joom^/^c, which some 
suppose to be derived from the Latin jporrwm." — Loudon. 

The leaves of this plant possess a flavour similar to that 
of onions ; affording a constant dish at the table of the 
Egyptians, who chop them up small, and eat them with 
their meat. They are also in great esteem among the 
"VV elsh ; and their general utility, as a wholesome pot-herb, 
renders them a valuable culinary spice." — Willich. 

LETTUCE. — Lactuca sativa. — Lettuce is a hardy, an- 
nual plant, introduced or cultivated in England in 1562, 
but from what quarter is not known. 

Varieties. — These are very numerous ; and, from their 
names, many of them appear to have come originally from 
the Greek Islands, and the coast of the Levant. Those 
mentioned in Mr. Russell's Catalogue are, 

Early curled Silesia, Grand admiral, {large, ^ne cabbage,) 

Large green-head, or cabbage, Tennis-ball, or rose, 

Royal cape, {superior quality,) Magnum bonum Cos, 

India Lettuce, {JiTie,) Brighton Cos, 

Imperial cabbage, Ice Cos, 

Hardy green. White Cos, or loaf, 

Brown Dutch cabbage, Green Cos. 

Estimate of sorts. — The cabbage lettuces are round-leaved, 
growing in a compact, full head, of squat form, close to the 
ground* All the Cos lettuces, in their general growth, are 
more or less upright, of an oblong shape. Both kinds have 



192 



LETTUCE. 



white, close, firm heads, when in perfection ; the varieties 
reach maturity from June till September. Meanwhile, they 
are occasionally used in young, open growth. In a very 
young state, the cabbage-lettuces have a milder, more agree- 
able taste than the Cos; but when both classes are full 
grown, the flavour of the Cos is preferred for salads, while 
the cabbage kinds are more used for soups. 

Propagation, — From seed, of which, for a seed-bed four feet 
wide by ten feet in length, a quarter of an ounce is sufficient, 
and will produce upwards of four hundred plants. 

Soil and situation. — " All the sorts grow freely on any 
rich, mellow soil, where the sub-soil is dry. For the most 
part, raise this vegetable as a principal crop, on beds set 
apart for it, and keep the varieties separate ; but to multi- 
ply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be sown, 
thinly intermixed with principal crops of leeks, onions, car- 
rots, and spinnage, which will come off before the lettuces , 
are full grown; also with any young perennials, which 
stand at wide intervals." 

Times of sowing, — To obtain a constant supply of good 
lettuce, it is serviceable to sow every month, from February 
(or the opening of spring) to July, for the main summer 
and autumn crops. For late autumn crops, you may sow 
*n August, and if you have hot-beds, frames, &c. you may 
sow in September, and so on, through the fall and winter. 
Early spring lettuce may be sow^ed so late in the fall as not 
(o come up till spring. 

Process of solving. — Abercrombie says, "The ground 
<hould have been broken in the previous digging. Sow 
oro ad-cast, moderately thin; rake in lightly, and very even." 
Others direct to sow in drills, from a foot to sixteen inches 
apart. Anristiong observes, that " the straight-leafed sort 
is best cultivated in broad-cast, and does not require trans- 
planting; but that the curled and head-lettuce cannot suc- 
ceed without it." 

Mrmacement of the simmer crop. — " In the successive 
crops, raised from the opening of spring till the close of 
summer, when the plants reach about tw^o, three, four 
ihches' growth, they should be thinned ; of those removed, 
let a requisite number be planted out, from a foot to fifteen 
inches asunder, to remain for cabbaging. Such as continue 
in the seed-beds may be either gathered thinningly, in pro- 
gressive stages, till the final reserve adv^aoce in close-head- 
ing; or, as they increase in size, be planted out at the 
square distance mentioned above, especially those designed 



LOCUST-TREE. 



193 



to stand till of stocky growth. In dry weather, water well 
at transplanting; also weed and hoe the beds thinned, 
and water them, if necessary. In the first heading-crop of 
Cos lettuces, when about three parts grown, and beginning 
to close the inner leaves, a number may be forwarded in 
cabbaging, by tying the leaves together, moderately close, 
with strings of bass ; the remainder will head and whiten 
in due time, without this assistance. 

Crop raised on heat, — " For an accelerated crop, some 
may be sown in the beginning or middle of February, on a 
gentle hot-bed. When the plants are one or two inches 
high, in March or April, prick a portion either into a warm 
border, if a mild season, and let them be shielded with 
mats, during nights and bad weather ; or into a frame or 
slender hot-bed, to bring them more forward. According 
to their progress in April or May, transplant them into the 
open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder, to remain 
for heading." 

To save seed, — " Leave or transplant either some of the 
early winter-standing plants, in March or April, or of the 
forwardest spring-sown crops, in May, or the beginning of 
Jupe, fifteen inches asunder. They will produce ripe seed 
in August or September." — Ahercromhie, 

Use, — The use of lettuce, as a cooling and agreeable 
salad, is well known ; it is also a useful ingredient in soups. 
It has medical properties, similar to those of opium. The 
refuse leaves are said to be good food for geese, ducks, and 
swine. 

LOCUST-TREE.— i?o5ima pseudo-acacia,— This tree 
is a native of the United States. 

Method of cultivation. — " It is capable of being raised 
from the seed, cuttings, layers and suckers ; but the seed 
method is said to afford the best plants. The seeds should 
be sown about the end of March, or beginning of the fol- 
lowing month, OR a bed of light mould, being covered to the 
depth of about half an inch. The plants usually appear in 
the course of six or eight weeks. They should be well 
weeded and watered, and, when sufficiently strong, should 
be set oul; in the spring, or autumn, in nursery rows, for 
two or three years, in order to remain to have a proper 
growth for final planting." — Rees^ Cyclopedia, 

Dr. Drown, of Rhode Island, says, that " The easiest 
method of raising the locust is as follows : — Plant fifteen or 
twenty trees on an acre, and, when fifteen or twenty feet 
high, run straggling furrows through the ground, and, 
17 



194 



LOCUST-TREE. 



wherever the roots are cut with the plough, new trees will 
start up, and will soon stock the ground with a plentiful 
growth.'' 

Use. — It is observed in the North American Sylva^ a cele- 
brated work, by F. Andrew Michaux, that " The greatest 
consumption of locust wood is for posts, which are em- 
ployed in preference for the enclosing of court-yards, gar- 
dens and farms, in the districts where the tree abounds, and 
the circumjacent country. They are transported for the 
same use to Lancaster, Baltimore, Washington, Alexan- 
dria, and the vicinity. — When the trees are felled in the 
winter, while the circulation of the sap is suspended, and 
these posts are allowed to become perfectly dry before they 
are set, they are estimated to last forty years. Experience 
has shown that their duration varies according to certain 
differences in the trees from which they are formed : thus 
about Lancaster, and at Harrisburgh, a small town on the 
Susquehannah, where a considerable trade is carried on in 
wood that is brought down the river, those trees are 
reputed the best whose heart is red ; the next in esteem 
are those with a greenish-yellow heart ; and the least valu- 
able are those with a white heart. From this variety in 
the colour of the wood, which, probably, arises from a dif- 
ference of soil, are derived the names of red^ green^ and 
white locust. In the Western States, there is a variety which 
is sometimes called Mack locust." 

It is probable, that the locust with a " greenish-yellow 
heart," spoken of by M. Michaux is the same with that 
which Mr. Briggs calls the yellow locust; and although 
M. Michaux supposes " this variety in the colour of the 
v/ood probably arises from a diiFerence of soil," it is not im- 
possible that there may be permanent specific differences 
in the several varieties. If so, the discovery is of impor- 
tance. 

M. Michaux says, " In naval architecture, the ship- 
v/rights use as much locust-wood as they can procure. It 
is as durable as the live oak and the red cedar, with the 
advantage of being stronger than the one, and lighter than 
the other." 

With regard to the insect which destroys the locust, M. 
Michaux says, " Within eighteen or twenty years, an obsta- 
vie has unhappily appeared, which will contribute greatly 
to prevent the multiplication of the locust in all the an- 
ciently settled parts of the United States ; this is a winged 
insect, which attacks the tree while standing, penetrates 



LOCUST-TREE. 



195 



through the bark into the centre of the trunk, and, for the 
space of a foot, mmes it in every direction, so that it is 
easily broken by the wind. This inconvenience is already 
so serious, as to induce many people to forego all attempts 
to form plantations of locust. In Virginia, I have not 
learned that trees of the natural growth have been visited 
by this destroyer, but those that have been reared about the 
plantations have already felt its ravages. This evil, which 
it appears difficult to remedy, will be more sensibly felt 
when the destruction of the forests now on foot, an inevita- 
ble consequence of the neglect of all measures of preserva- 
tion, shall force the inhabitants to have recourse to planta- 
tions, which they will wish to form, in a certain proportion, 
of the locust. Hence it may result, that, disappearing suc- 
cessively from the American forests, by constant consump- 
tion, and not being reproduced on account of the insect, the 
locusts will become extremely rare in their native country, 
and abundant in Europe, where no similar catastrophe for- 
bids their propagation." 

The Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture 
have offered a premium of fifty dollars " for a mode of ex- 
tirpating the worm that attacks the locust-tree, which shall 
appear to the satisfaction of the trustees to be effectual." 

The following, copied from a report of a committee of 
the Essex Agricultural Society^ on farms in Essex county, 
Mass., (published in the N, E, Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 145,) 
places the advantages to be anticipated from the culture of 
the locust in a fair, and, we believe, just point of view. 

" A practical illustration of the advantages of cultivating 
the locust tree presented itself on the farm of Dr. Nichols. 
Several acres, that were, a few years since, barren and 
gravelly pastures, are now covered with a good coat of 
grass, almost entirely by reason of planting and permitting 
a growth of locust trees upon the land. This is easily done, 
after a few trees have taken root, either from the seed, or 
by being transplanted, and taking care that horned cattle 
do not go upon the land while the trees are young. In 
addition to the increase of feed, the trees themselves are 
well worthy of cultivation. No growth is more rapid, and 
none more in demand, or of greater value when arrived at 
maturity. It may be doubted whether an acre of land can 
be made to yield more in the course of twenty-five or thirty 
years, without the application of any manure, than by plant- 
ing it with locust-trees. On a fair computation, the num- 
ber of serviceable posts that might be obtained in this time 



196 



LOVE-APPLE. MADDER. 



would be from three to six hundred, worth from fifty cents 
to one dollar each. The increase of feed and surplus wood 
would fully pay the labour of cultivation ; so that the pro- 
ceeds of the timber would be the profits of the land. 

" An objection to the cultivation of the locust-tree is often 
brought from the fact that they are sometimes destroyed by 
worms. This is true ; but the ravages of this insect are 
found to be greatest where the trees are few and scattered. 
In the grove on this farm, which extends over a number of 
acres, and in the other groves in the vicinity, but very few 
of the trees are at all injured by worms. This objection is 
by no means sufficient to authorize the neglect of their cul- 
tivation. It certainly is of the highest importance to the 
farmers of Essex, to inquire how they can improve their 
pastures ; or, rather, how they can save them from ruin ; 
for it must be obvious to all, that, as at present managed, 
they are constantly growing worse, and many of them 
have already become of very little value. If, by planting 
them with trees, by ploughing, by applying plaster, as has 
been done, with good success, on the farm of Mr. Bartlett, 
or in any other way, they can be reclaimed, it surely is 
worthy of the experiment." 

LOVE-APPLE.— iS^ee Tomato. 

MADDER. — Rubia tinctoria, — The following directions 
for raising this plant are copied from The Emporium of Arts : 

" This plant may be propagated either by offsets or seeds. 
If the latter method is preferred, the seed should be of the 
true Turkish kind, which is called Lizari^ in the Levant. 
On a light, thin soil, the culture cannot be carried on to any 
great profit. The soil in which the plant delights is a 
rich, sandy loam, being three feet in depth, or more. 

" The ground, being first made smooth, is divided into 
beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half as wide again 
as the beds. The reason of this extraordinary breadth of 
the alleys will presently appear. In each alley is to be a 
shallow channel for the convenience of irrigating the whole 
fields, &c. That part of the alley which is not occupied 
may be sown with legumes. 

" The madder seed is sown broad-cast, in the proportion 
of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per acre, about the end 
of April. In a fortnight or three weeks, the young plants 
begin to appear ; and from this time to the month of Sep- 
tember, care must be taken to keep the ground well wa- 
tered, and free from weeds. 

*'If the plants are examined in autumn, they will be 



MANGEL WURTZEL. MARJORAM ORIGANUM, 197 



found surrounded with small yellow offsets, at the depth 
of two inches ; and early in September, the earth from the 
alleys is to be dug out, and laid over the plants of madder, 
to the height of two or three inches. With this, the first 
year's operation ceases. 

''The second year's work begins in May, with giving 
the bed > a thorough ^veeding ; and care must be taken to 
sa]>p!y choixi with plenty of water during the summer. In- 
September, the first crop of seed will be ripe; at w^hich 
time the stems of the plants may be mown down, and the 
rools covered a few inches with earth, taken as before out 
of the alleys. 

" The weeding should take place as early as possible in the 
spring of the third year ; and the crop, instead of being left 
for seed, may be cut three times, daring summer, for green 
fodder, all kinds of cattle being remarkably fond of it. 

" in October, the roots are taken up, the offsets carefully 
separated, and immediately used to form a new plantation ; 
and the roots, after being dried, are sold, either without 
.further preparation, or ground to a coarse powder, and 
sprinkled with an alkaline lie* 

" The roots lose four fifths of their weight in drying; 
and the produce of an acre is about two thousand pounds 
weight of dry, saleable madder." 

" Madder usually sells for about thirty-two dollars per 
hundred ; so that the produce of an acre, as above staled, 
would amount to six hundred and forty dollars.''— tamer's 

MANGEL WURTZEL,— Beet. 

MARJORAM ORIGANUM.— Of ibis herb there ,are 
f-^ur different species cultivated; the poij sweet, winter, and 
comraoii. 

Pot marjoram — O. ordtes — is a baroy, perennial, under 
s'lriib, a native of Italy. The stem rises more than a foot 
liigh, and is covered v^ itli spreading hairs ; the leaves are 
small and acute^ almost sessile, and downy on both sides. 
It h in tlovver from July to November, and is propagated 
from seed, but chiefly from rooted slips. 

Sweet marjoram — O. rriarjorana — is a i;ardy biennial, 
a nalive of Portugal. It resembles the O. Onitcs^ but the 
leavf's have distinct petioles, a,nd the flowers, which appear 
in J rie and July, are coUected in small, close heads ; and 
hence it is riftPTi called knofted irnrjorain. When in blos- 
f'^-i. the lierb i^: cul over, ni^d nvl^d for winter use, so that 
'i sowL.i^ r^^qvires to be made every year. 



198 



MELON. 



The WINTER SWEET MARJORAM is the O. Heracleatictm^ 
a hardy perennial, a native of Greece. The leaves of this 
species resemble those of O. marjorana ; but the flow- 
ers come in spikes. It flow^js from June to November, 
requires a sheltered, dry soil, and, seldom ripening its seeds, 
is propagated by slips and cuttings. 

The COMMON MARJORAM is the O. vidgare^ a native of 
Britain. It bears a considerable resemblance to the last 
named species. The flowers arise in sub-rotund panicles, in 
smooth, coloured spikes, of a reddish appearance, in July and 
August. This species is only used in cookery, in default 
of the others. 

Culture, — The three first species prefer a light, dry soil ; 
the other a calcareous soil and shady situation. For a seed- 
bed, three feet by three feet, a quarter of an ounce of seed 
is sufficient. Sow in April, on a compartment of light 
earth, either in small drills, or broad-cast ; or, sow a portion 
in a hot-bed, if requisite to have a small crop forwarded. 
When the plants are one, two, or three inches high, thin 
the seed-beds, and plant those thinned out in a final bed, 
six inches apart, giving water ; or, where larger supplies 
are required, some may remain thick where sown, to be 
drawn off* by the root as wanted. The pot^ winter, and 
common marjoram may be propagated from offsets, by part- 
ing the roots in spring and autumn. Plant in rows in beds, 
allowing a square foot for each plant. 

Gather the tops of all the sorts as wanted for summer 
use ; and when in full blossom, in July or August, for 
preservation through the winter. 

Use, — All the species, but especially the three first, are 
aromatics, of sweet flavour, much used as relishing herbs in 
soups, broths, stuffings, &c. The young, tender tops and 
leaves together, are used in summer, in a green state ; and 
they are dried for winter. — Abridged from Encyc, of Gard, 

MELON. Cucumis melo, and Cucurhita citrullus, — 

There are but two species, the melon with a rough or em- 
broidered coat, called musk-melon, {cucumis melo,) and the 
melon with a smooth skin, called water-melon, (cucurhita 
citrullus,) Of each of the species there are many varieties. 
Mr. Russell's Catalogue contains the foUov/ing : — 



CUCUMIS MELO. 

Green citron, {finest variety 

Murray's pine apple, 

Persian, 

Nutmeg, 

Minorca, 



Large cantaleuj^e, 
Pomegranite. 

CUCURBITA CITRULLUS. 

Carolina water, 
Long Island do. 
Apple-seeded do. {early,) 



MELON, 



199 



Seed. — Those who wish to procure melons in perfec- 
t'oii, m-dst be careful, in the first place, to procure good 
seed ; secondiy, to plant them remote from an inferior sort, 
n.s well as from cucumbers, squashes, gourds, and pump- 
kins ; as degeneracy will infallibly be the consequence of 
i ^-itlention to these directions. Abercrombie says, Seed 
lender the age of two years is apt to run too much to 
vine, and show only male flowers ; but new seed may 
be mellowed by being carried in the pocket a fortnight or 
more, tHl the heat of the body has dried and hardened it. 
Seed ivventy years old has been known to grow, and make 
fruitful plants ; but seed which has been kept three or four 
years is quite old enough, and less likely to fail than 
older." 

Soil. — Abercrombie says, " The melon will succeed in 
any unexhausted loam, rich in vegetable rudiments, with a 
mixture of sand, but not too light. The following is a 
good compost; two thirds of top-spit earth from a sheep- 
common, adding sharp sand, if the earth contains little or 
none, till half is sand ; one sixth of vegetable mould, and 
one sixth of well-consumed horse-dung. Or, if the earth 
is not obtained from a sheep-pasture, rotted sheep-dung 
may be substituted for the last. The ingred^'ents should 
have been pulverized and incorporated by long previous 
exposure and turning over." Dr. Deane observed that "a 
good manure to be put under melons is an old compost of 
good loam, with the dung of neat cattle or swine." 

Soioing mehns in the open ground. — Mr. Armstrong says, 
" To succeed in raising them for market, the Honileur 
method, as described by M. Calvel, may be employed. — 
Select a spot well defended against the north wind, and 
open to the sun throughout the day. If such is not to be 
found in your garden, create a temporary and artificial shel- 
ter, producing the same effect. At the end of March, form 
holes two feet in diameter, and distant from each other 
seven feet and a half ; fill these v, ith horse-dung and litter, 
or a mixture of mould, dung and sand. At the end of 
twenty days, cover the holes, which have been thus filled, 
with hand-glasses. When the heat rises to 36 of Reau- 
mu., [113 Fahr.,] sow the seeds four inches apart; and 
when the plants have acquired two or three leaves, pinch 
off the end of the branch or runner.*' This will produce 

There is much controversy among" g^ardeners and savants on this point ; 
nor are the jyiih c s entirely united in opinion, how far this practice should be 
ch r-ed. Some content themselves with taking off the cotyledons, when th« 



200 



lateral branches, which must again be pinched off, as soon as 
they respectively attain to the length of ten inches. When 
the plant has outgrown the glass, the latter becomes use- 
less, and may be removed ; but, should the weather be wet 
or chilly, substitute coverings of clean straw for that of the 
glasses, until the young plant becomes strong enough to 
bear the open air. Two or three melons only are left on 
each vine, and under each of these is placed a slate, with- 
out which the upper and under side will not ripen together. 
Two months are required to mature them. The people of 
Honfleur attribute their success in melon-raising to the sea- 
vapour which suTTOunds them, and to the saline particles 
contained in it, an advantage to be any where commanded, 
by dissolving a little salt in the water employed to moisten 
them." Whether a bed of slate would prove too warm 
for the melon in our climate, we cannot say. Perhaps 
shingles or boards might be preferable, as they would not 
be rendered so hot by the noon-day sun, nor so cold by 
the night air. W e have never known salt, either in sub- 
stance or solution, used as a manure for melons, but think 
it would be well to try its effects. 

The following are M'Mahon's directions for raising mel- 
ons in the open ground. Some time in May, " prepare a 
place of rich, sandy ground, well exposed to the sun ; ma- 
nure it, and give it a good digging ; then mark it out 
into squares of six feet every way ; at the angle of every 
square dig a hole twelve inches deep, and eighteen over, 
into which put seven or eight inches deep of old hot-bed 
dung, or very rotten manure ; throw thereon about four 
inches of earth, and mix the dung and earth well with the 
spade ; after which draw the remainder of the earth over 
the mixture, so as to form a round hill about a foot broad at 
top. Some people use hot stable-dung under an idea that 
its heat would promote the vegetation of the seed : this is 
a mistaken notion, as, in a few hours, it loses all it had, for 
want of a sufficient quantity being together to promote fer- 
mentation, and becomes a dryish wisp, unfit, at least for 
the present, to afford either heat or nourishment to the 
plants. 

" When your hills &re all prepared as above, plant in 
each, towards the centre, eight or nine grains of good mel- 

f>!ant has ar-quirad three or four leaves; while others lake off the principal 
•ranches of the first eye above the fruit, and suppress all the secondary bra.'ir h- 
eS; male flo^ypj-s and tendrils. Tliese operations, says i\[r. J'osc, are fonnded 
in bad r€?9o?iing". A cutting, vvhicl"! S'jppi esses two th.irds of the plant at cute. 
camiot fail to disorganize what remains.'* 



MELON. 



201 



on-seed, distant two inches from one another, and cover 
them about half an inch deep." 

After-culture, — " When the plants are up, and in a state 
of forwardness, producing their rough leaves, they must be 
thinned to two or three in each hill . the extra number in 
some rns-y serve to fill up deficiences in others : draw earth 
from time to time round the hills, and as high about the 
plants as the seed-leav€s; when fit stop them. This oper- 
ation should be performed when the plants have two rough 
leaves, and when the second is about an inch broad, hav- 
ing the first runner-bud rising at its base ; the sooner this 
is detached, the sooner the plants acquire strength, and put 
out fruitful runners. 

" It is to be done in the following manner : — 

" You will see arising in the centre of the plant, at the 
bottom of the second rough leaf, the end of the first runner, 
like a small bud ; which bud or runner, being the advancing 
top of the plant, is now to be taken off close, and may be 
done either with the point of a penknife or small scissors, 
or pinched off" carefully with the finger and thumb ; but, 
whichever way you take it ofi*, be careful not to go so close 
as to wound the joint from whence it proceeds." 

Armstrong says, If the branches vigorous and 
long, stretch them carefully over a level surface, and bury 
every fourth or fifth joint. This is best done by means of a 
wooden crotchet. The objects of pinching, or shortening 
the stem, are thus completely fulfilled, without aiiy of the 
risk which attends that operation, and with advantages 
peculiar to this method ; as, wherever the plant is buried, 
new roots are formed for the better nutrition of the stem 
and the fruit." 

Setting. — " As the fruit-bearers come into blossom, you 
may assist the setting of the fruit, by impregnating some 
of the female blossoms with the male flowers, as directed 
for the cucumber. The melon, however, v/ill also set nat- 
urally, and produce fertile seeds, if the time of fructification 
fall at a season when the glasses can be left almost 
constantly open." — Aher, Nicol says he has " proved, 
experimentally, that melons not impregnated will not swell 
off so fair and handsome as impregnated ones, and there- 
fore considers it more necessary to attend to this operation 
in melons than in cucumbers." — Loudon, 

Care of the fruit. — As the fruit increases to the size of a 
walnut, place a flat tile or slate under each, to protect it 
from the damp of the earth ; the slab, thus interposed, will 



202 



MELON, 



also assist the fruit to ripen, by reflecting the rays of the sun. 
— Aber, Nicol advises placing the fruit on bits of slate or 
glass some time before it begins to ripen ; but by no means 
jslate or moss the whole surface of the bed. 

Forcing melons, — The " Honfleur method" of forwarding 
the production of melons, as stated by Mr. Armstrong, has 
been given, pp. 199, 200, The same writer continues, If 
we w^ant melons at a period earlier than this method will 
give them, we must employ a higher degree and a longer 
continuance of artificial heat ; in a word, we must resort 
to hot-beds^ and in these the point most important and diffi- 
cult of attainment at the same time is, to secure a certain 
degree of heat, and no more, throughout the w^hole process. 
To lessen the difficulty in this case, gardeners, who under- 
stand their trade, make choice of those varieties which 
have the thinnest skins and the least bulk, as experience 
proves that, other things being equal, they require less 
heat than those of thicker rinds and greater size, and are 
of course less subject to some of the accidents to which 
this species of culture is exposed. In choosing the seeds, 
those of the last year are only to be used, because they 
are of quicker vegetation than old ones, and, accord- 
ingly, best fulfil the intention of the hot-bed, which is, to 
give early fruit. Another practice conducive to the safety 
of the plants, is, to sow the seeds in small pots, and then 
to plunge them into a hot-bed. If the heat be deficient, 
they are, in this case, made no worse than they would have 
been, if sown directly in the bed ; and if it be excessive, it 
is only necessary to raise the pots, without in the smallest 
degree disturbing the plant. These things being premised, 
it but remains to show what ought to be the subsequent man- 
agement after the seed has been sown, and the pots placed 
under the frames. One of the most important points now 
to be observed, is sufficiently to ventilate the bed, as well 
before as after the plants show themselves. This should be 
done at mid-day and in sunshine, and as often as a necessity 
for it shall be indicated by an accumulation of steam under 
the glasses. At night, these (the glasses) should be 
carefully covered with matting. These two preliminaries 
(ventilation in the day, and covering at night) being care- 
fully observed, your plants will soon show themselves in a 
vigorous and healthy state, and may be kept in that condi- 
tion by a continuation of the same means, and by moderate- 
ly moistening the earth when it shall have become too dry. 
The water employed should be of the same temperature 



MELON. 



203 



of the air under the frames ; and, to secure this, it is weE 
to keep a supply of it in a pot, placed in a corner of the 
hot-bed. In about a month, the plants, thus raised, will bt* 
fit for transferring to a second and larger hot-bed, construct- 
ed like the preceding, with the exception, that the mass o^ 
dung must now be greater, and that, after earthing, the bed 
should not be less than three and a half or four feet in depth. 
The plants, with the earth in which they grow, are now to 
be taken from the pots — an operation in which practice 
only will make us expert, and which consists in placing 
the neck of the plant between the first and second finger 
of the left hand, reversing the pot, and gently striking its 
sides till the earth be disengaged. The discharged mass 
is then placed in a hole, previously prepared in the 
square, where it is intended the plant shall ripen and 
produce." 

Catting the fruit. — Nical observes, that " Melons, if al- 
lowed to remain on tha plant till they be of a deep yellow 
colour, lose much of their flavour. They should, therefore, 
be cut as soon as they begin to change to a greenish-yellow, 
or, rather, as soon as they begin to smell ripe. They may 
lie in a frame for a day or two, if not immediately wanted, 
where they will acquire sufficient colour. But if they are 
let remain many days in the frame, they will become as 
insipid as if they had been left too long on the plant." 

Saving seed. — The ordinpry mode is to request the 
seeds of particularly fine fruits of approved sorts to be re- 
turned from table. The best way, however, is to pick 
some best ripe fruit, take out the seed, clean it from the 
puip, and let it be well dried and hardened ; and then put 
it up in papers. — Ahercrombie, Nicol says, wash it very 
clean, skimming off the light seeds, as those only which 
sink in water will grow. Great care must be taken that 
the sorts from which seeds are saved are genuine and dis- 
tinct. When different sorts are planted in the same bed, 
this cannot be the case. 

Second crop from the same plants. — " When the fruit of 
the first crop is off, a second crop may be obtained from 
the same stools, which often proves more productive than 
the first. If the first crop is taken before the middle of 
June, the second will come at a very good time. For this 
purpose, as soon as the fruit is cut, prune the plant. Short- 
en the vigorous, healthy runners, at a promising joint, to 
force out new laterals, cutting about two inches above the 
joint. At the same time, take off all decayed or sickly vines, 



204 



MINT. 



and all dead leaves. Stir the surface of the mould, and 
renew it partially by three inches' depth of fresh compost. 
Water the plants copiously, shutting down the glasses for 
the night. Shade in the middle of hot days ; and give but 
little air, until the plant has made new radicles and shoots. 
Afterwards repeat the coarse of culture above described, 
from the stage when the first runners are sent out till fruit 
is cut.-' — Loudon, 

Insects and diseases, — To prevent melon-plants from be- 
ing infested with insects, or injured by diseases of any 
kind, no better method can be adopted than to keep the 

f)lants constantly in a healthy, vigorous, growing state ; 
or this purpose, M'Phail observes, " They must be crr- 
stantly attended to, giving them plenty of heat and v 
In warm weather, in the spring and in summer, they bhouid 
be watered occasionally all over their fruit and leaves, tiU 
the earth in which they grow be thoroughly mo;sterf d.-' 
In this country, melons and cucumbers are much infested 
by a small yellow bug, and perhaps the best method cf 
securing them is covering the plants with a frame, on 
which millinet is stretched and fastened, as directed uniler 
article Cucumber. 
Use, — The use of melons, as a palatable and wholes'^ '^e 
a. tide of diet, is too well known to need any remarks. Dr. 
^iease, of Philadelphia, observes, that " The juice of the 
o>veeter kind of w ater-melon yields, on inspissation, a 
bright light-coloured syrup, which would answer every 
^jrpose required of any syrup. Mr. Henry Drinker, of 
Philadelphia, procured half a pound of this syrup, from 
fourteen pounds of melon juice, a part of which I tast- 
ed, and found very pleasant." To make the most of unripe 
melons, Loudon's Magazine directs to "boil them, and 
season them with spices and salt, or bake them like a 
pumpkin-pie." The rind of the w^ater-melon is also used 
for pickling, &c. 

MINT. — Mentha, — This is a genus of plants comprising 
twenty-four species. Those cultivated in gardens are pep- 
permint, (M, piperita;) spearmint, (M, viridis;) penny- 
royal-mint, ( M. pnlegium,) 

Qdtiire. — All " the species are raised by the same meth- 
ods, viz. by parting the roots, by offset young plants, and 
by cuttings of the stalks. Spearmint and peppermint like 
a moist soil ; penny- royal, a strong loam. The plants set 
in spring or summer will come into use the same year. 
They may be placed about eight inches apart, on beds abo t 



MULBERRY. MUSHROOM. 



205 



four feet wide, allowing a path two feet broad. New beds 
should be made every three years. 

Gathering the crop^ and use, — " Mint should be cut for 
drying," says Philips, "just when it is in flower, and on a 
fine day ; for if cut in damp weather, the leaves will turn 
black. It should be tied in small bunches, and dried in a 
shady place, out of the wind ; but, to retain its natural virtues 
more effectually, it has been found better to place the mint 
in a screen, and to dry it quickly before a fire, so that it 
may be powdered and immediately put into glass bottles, 
and kept well stopped. Parsley, thyme, sage, and other 
herbs, retain their full fragrance when thus prepared, and 
are by this mode secured from dust, and always ready to 
the hand of the cook. 

" A conserve made of mint is grateful, and the dis- 
tilled waters, both simple and spirituous, are much esteem- 
ed. The juice of spearmint, drank in vinegar, often 
stops the hiccup. Lewis observes, what has before been 
observed by Pliny, that mint prevents the coagulation of 
milk, and hence it is recommended in milk diets." 

MULBERRY.— Morns,— See Silk. 

MUSHROOM. — Agaricus. — This is a genus of plants 
comprising a great many species, of which, according to 
some authors, three hundred are natives of Great Britain. 
The kind cultivated in gardens is the Agaricus campestrisj 
which is thus described by M'Mahon : — " The gills of this 
are loose, of a pinky red, changing to liver colour, in contact, 
but not united with the stem ; very thick set, some forked 
next the stem, some next the edge of the cap, some at both 
ends, and generally, in that case, excluding the intermediate 
smaller gills. Cap^ white, changing to brown when old, 
and becoming scurfy, fleshy, and regularly convex, but with 
age flat, and liquefying in decay ; flesh white ; diameter 
commonly from one inch to three, or sometimes four or 
more. Stem solid, one to three inches high, and about 
half an inch in diameter." 

Loudon says, " The mushroom is a v/ell known native 
vegetable, springing up in open pastures in August and Sep- 
tember. It is most readily distinguished, when of middle 
£ize, by its fine pink or flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant 
gmell ; in a more advanced stage, the gills become of a 
chocolate colour, and it is then more apt to be confounded 
with other kinds of dubious quality ; but that species 
y/hich most nearly resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and 
destitute of the fine odour, having rather a disa^eeable 
13 



206 



MUSHROOM, 



smell: further, the noxious kind grows in woods, or on the 
margins of woods, while the true mushroom springs up 
chiefly in open pastures, and should be gathered only in 
such places." 

Mr. Armstrong gives the following directions for culti- 
vating the garden mushroom : — Prepare a bed, early in 
October, either in a corner of the hot-house, if you have 
one, or a dry and warm cellar. The width of the bed at 
bottom should not be less than four feet, and its length in 
proportion to the spawn provided. Its sides should rise 
perpendicularly one foot, and should afterwards decrease to 
the centre, forming four sloping surfaces. We need hardly 
say that the material of the bed at this stage of the busi- 
ness must be horse-dung, well forked, and pressed together 
to prevent its settling unequally. It should then be cover- 
ed with long straw, as well to exclude frost as to keep in 
the volatile parts of the mass, which would otherwise 
escape. After ten days, the temperature of the bed will be 
sufficiently moderated, when the straw is to be removed, 
and a covering of good mould, to the depth of an inch, laid 
over the dung. On this the seed or spawn of the mush- 
room [which are threads or fibres of a white colour, found 
in old pasture-grounds, in masses of rotten horse-dung, 
sometimes under stable-floors, and frequently in the re- 
mains of old hot-beds] is to be placed in rows, six inches 
apart, occupying all the sloping parts of the bed, which is 
again to be covered with a second inch of fresh mould and 
a coat of straw. If your bed has been well constructed, 
your mushrooms will be fit for use at the end of five or 
six weeks, and will continue to be productive for several 
months. Should you, however, in the course of the win- 
ter, find its productiveness diminished, take ofl* nearly all 
the original covering, and replace it with eight or ten inch- 
es of fresh dung and a coat of clean straw. This, by 
creating a new heat, will revive the action of the spawn, 
and give a long succession of mushrooms." — Mem, of N, 
Y* Board of Agr. vol. ii. p. 125. 

Use, — The garden mushroom is eaten fresh, either stew- 
ed or boiled ; and preserved as a pickle, or in powder, or 
dried whole. The sauce commonly called ketchup (sup- 
posed, by Martyn, from the Japanese, kit-jap) is or ought 
:o be made from its juice with salt and spices. Wild 
mushrooms from old pastures are generally considered a« 
more delicate in flavour, and more tender in flesh, thaa 
tliose raised in artificial beds. But the young or l)utter 



MtrSTAHD. 



207 



mushrooms, of the cultivated sort, are firmer, and better for 
pickling ; and in using cultivated mushrooms, there is evi- 
dently much less risk of deleterious kinds being employed.*' 
— 'Neill and Martyn, 

" Antidote to poisonous sorts. — All fungi should be used 
with great caution, for even the champignon and edible gar- 
den-mushrooms possess deleterious qualities when grown 
in certain places. All the edible species should be thor- 
oughly masticated, before taken into the stomach, as this 
greatly lessens the effects of poisons. When accidents of 
this sort happen, vomiting should be immediately excited, 
and then the vegetable acids should be given, either vine- 
gar, lemon-juice, or that of apples ; after which, give ether 
and antispasmodic remedies, to stop the excessive bilious 
vomiting. Infusions of gall-nut, oak-bark, and Peruvian 
bark are recommended as capable of neutralizing the pois- 
onous principle of mushrooms. It is, however, the safest 
way not to eat any of the good^ but less common sorts, until 
they have been soaked in vinegar. Spirit of wine and 
vinegar extract some part of their poison ; and tannin mat- 
ter decomposes the greatest part of it." — Botanists Comr 
panion^ vol. ii. p. 145. 

MUSTARD. — Sinapis, — Of this plant there are two 
species in cultivation, the black and the white ; annuals, 
and natives of Great Britain. 

The following are Loudon's directions for the culture of 
the whit^ mustard, S, alba. For spring and summer con* 
sumption, sow once a week or fortnight, in dry, warm situ- 
ations, in February and March ; and, afterwards, in any 
other compartment. " In summer, sow in shady borders, if 
it be hot, sunny weather ; or, have the bed shaded. Gen- 
erally, sow in shallow, fiat drills, from three to six inches 
apart ; scatter the seed thick and regular, and cover in thin- 
ly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch. To furnish 
gatherings in winter or early in spring, sow in frames or 
under hand-glasses ; and when the weather is frosty, or 
very cold, in hot-beds and stoves." 

tJse. — " This species," according to Loudon, "is cultivar 
ted chiefiy as a small salad, and is used like cresses, while 
in the seed : when these are newly expanded, they are mild 
and tender ; but when the plants have advanced into the 
rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable." " In Spain, 
and throughout the south of Europe, the seed of the white 
species is preferred, for the fabrication of mustard, because 



203 



NECTARINE. — -NURSERY. 



iving a whiter and milder flour than the seed of the 
lack. " — Armstrong. 
The seed of this plant is also celebrated for its medical 
rirtues, being at once a tonic and an aperient ; cleansing 
the stomach and bowels, and bracing the system at the 
game time. — See N. E. Farmer ^ vol. vi. p. 188. 

Black mustard — S. nigra — is a larger plant than the 
white, with much darker leaves, and their divisions 
blunter. 

Use. — " Black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for 
the mill, and for medicinal purposes. It is sometimes, 
however, sown in gardens, and the tender leaves used as 
greens, early in the spring. The seed leaves, in common 
with those of the cress, radish, rape, &c., are sometimes 
used as a salad ingredient ; but the grand purpose for which 
the plant is cultivated, is for seeds, which, ground, produce 
the well known condiment. If the seeds. Dr. Cuiien ob- 
serves, be taken fresh from the plant, and ground, the pow- 
der has little pur:gencY, but is very bitter; by steeping in 
vinegar, however, the esential oil is evolved, and the pow- 
der becomes extremely pungent. In moistening mustard- 
powder for the table, it maybe remarked, that it makes the 
best appearance when rich milk is used ; but the mixture, 
in this case, does not keep good for more than two days. 
The seeds of both the black and white mustard are often 
«sed, in an entire state, medicinally." 

Culture for the mill. — " To raise seed for flour of mus- 
tard, and other officinal occasions, sow, either in -March or 
April, in any open compartment ; or make large sowings in 
fields, v/here designed for public supply. Sow moderately 
thick, either in drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, or 
broad-cast, and rake or harrow in the seed. When the 
plants are two or three inches in the growth, hoe and 
thin them moderately where too thick, and clear them from 
v/eeds. They will soon run up in stalks, and, in July or 
August, return a crop of seed ripe for gathering." — Aber- 
crombie. 

NECTARINE. — Amygdalus Persica. — This is, by some 
writers, considered as the same fruit with the peach, and 
its culture is the same. See art. Fruit, for its different 
kinds, and Peach, for its culture. 

NURSERY. — In establishing a nursery, two points 
should be contemplated — fitness as to the disposal of the 
produce, and fitness as to shelter, aspect, and soil. Regard 



NURSERY. 



209 



must be had to the leading roads of the district, the means 
of carriage by land or water, the objects which will probably 
be most in demand, whether seedlings, fruit-trees, vines, 
native plants, tender exotics, or all these united. 

" In order to have a complete nursery, it should contain 
soils of various qualities, and not less than eighteen inches 
or two feet deep ; the generality of it should be light, friable 
earth ; a part of it should be of a clayey nature, and 
another part should be mossy. Each of these will be found 
peculiarly useful in the raising of the different kinds of 
young plants. The whole should be well drained and 
trenched, and cropped with vegetables for one, or even two 
years, previously to sowing tree seeds. For transplanting, 
it may be used the first year. A nursery may certainly be 
over-sheltered ; but this is likely to happen only in the case 
of its being very small ; for, if it extend to several acres, 
unless it be surrounded by very tall trees, the area will be 
considerably exposed. No part should be either too much 
exposed, or too much sheltered. Any aspect from east to 
west, following the course of the sun, will answer. Ground 
of an unequal surface is most likely to contain the various 
soils above-mentioned. A nursery should, therefore, in 
general, rise from a level to a pretty smart acclivity, yet no 
part of it should be too steep, because it is, in that case, 
very troublesome to labour. The nursery ground may be 
sufficiently fenced by a stone wall, or even a hedge, six feet 
high ; and if it be of small size, an acre or thereabouts, it 
will require no other shelter over all the space. The 
fence, whether of thorns or stone, should be made proof 
against the admission of hares or rabbits. It should be 
subdivided into compartments and borders, of proportionate 
size to the contents of the area, by walks. The compart- 
ments should never be encumbered v/ith large trees, as ap- 
ples, pears, or the like, because, being already established 
in the ground, they never fail to rob the young trees of 
their food, and to cause them to be poor and stunted, un- 
worthy of being planted. It would be very convenient to 
have a rill of water passing through the ground, or to have 
a small pond, fed by a spring, or a pipe, for the purpose of 
watering. 

" In preparing the soil for the culture of trees, it will be 
advisable to trench it to its full depth, and necessary to giva 
it a good dressing of lime or marl, or dung in compost. 
Rank manure, such as stable-litter, should not be applied to 
nursery ground, at the time of cropping with nursery arti- 
18* 



210 



NURSERY. 



cles ; but if it be necessary to enrich it, this should be done 
by a manured crop of onions, turnips, lettuces, or the like. 
Potatoes should never go before a crop of seedlings, even 
of the coarser sorts, as ash, oak, or chestnut; because pota- 
toes never can be taken clean out of the ground ; and, it 
being indispensable to pull up those which rise among the 
tree seedlings, many of these unavoidably come up along 
with them." — NlcoVs Planter'^ s Calender. 

" A rotting ground will be required for the preparation 
of certain seeds, by mixing them with sand, ashes, or soil, 
and leaving them there for different periods, from six 
months to two years, to rot off their interior coverings. On 
a small scale, a portion of the compost ground of the kitchen- 
garden may be used for this purpose. If the scale is large, 
an area of a few square poles should be set apart for bed- 
ding in plants taken up for replanting, or what is called 
laying in by the heels, or sloughing : this is generally called 
the bedding ground^ or, in Scotland, the sloughing ground,'^^ — 
Loudon. 

^' It has been a received opinion, that the soil for a nur- 
sery should not be made rich, as the plants, when removed 
to a more fertile soil, w ill flourish more luxuriantly ; but 
later obs.ervation has decided, that the reverse of this will 
be found correct. There is a close analogy between vegeta- 
ble and animal life ; and it is a dictate of nature, that both re- 
quire a full supply of nutriment, from their earliest existence. 
It w^ould be absurd to suppose, that the tender roots of 
young seedlings are capable of drawing sufficient nutriment 
from a rank, barren, and uncultivated soil, and those that 
are barely supported, or nearly starved at first, will never 
aftervv ards become vigorous, stately, and handsome, though 
surrounded by the richest mould. Repeated experiments 
have proved that a strong and vigorous plant, that has 
grown up quickly, and arrived at considerable magnitude 
in a short time, never fails to grow better, after transplant- 
ing, than another of the same size, that is older and stunted 
in its growth. Where the soil is poor and lean, trees, in 
every stage of their growth, are observed to be languid, 
weak, and stunted ; while those reared in a good, mellow 
soil, always assume a free growth, and advance with 
strength and vigour. It is evident, therefore, that the 
ground to be o<"cupied for a fruit nursery, requires to be 
made rich and fu tile. The soil should also be deep, well 
pulverized, and cleared of all roots anu weed«. The seedi 
may be sown either in autumn or April, and, in one yeal 



NURSERY. 



211 



after, the young plants may be taken up, and replanted in 
the nursery. It is important that the situation be such as 
to admit of a free circulation of air, and open to the sun, 
that the plants may be preserved in a healthy condition. 
Plants, reared in a confined and shaded situation, in a large 
town, and removed to an open exposure in the country, 
will long continue in a debilitated condition ; like a puny 
city invalid, their growth will be greatly impeded, and 
many years will elapse before they attain to a state of vig- 
our, health, and hardihood. 

" In MarshalVs Rural Economy it is directed, that the 
ceediing plants, when taken from the seed-bed, be sorted 
agreeably to the strength of their roots, that they may rise 
evenly together. The tap, or large bottom root, should be 
taken off, and the longer side-root-lets should be shortened. 
The young plants should then be set in rows, three feet 
apart, and from fifteen to eighteen inches asunder, in the 
rows ; care being taken not to cramp the roots, but to bed 
them evenly and horizontally among the mould. In strict- 
ness of management, they ought, two years previous to their 
being transferred to the orchard, to be transplanted into 
immanured, double-dug ground, four feet every way apart, 
.in order that the feeding fibres may be brought so near the 
stem, that they may be removed with it into the orchard, 
instead of being, as they generally are, left behind in the 
nursery. Hence, in this second transplanting, as in the 
ilrst, the branches of the root should not be left too long, 
but ought to be shortened in such a manner as to induce 
them to form a regular globular roof, sufficiently small to be 
removed with all their plants, yet sufficiently large to give 
it firmness and vigour in the plantation." — Thacher^s Or- 
chardist, 

A nursery should not be on a spot where fruit-trees have 
lately grown, or, indeed, any other deep-rooted plants. 
Miller advises to have a nursery of forest-trees in the place 
where the forest is designed to be planted, so that % suffi- 
cient number of the trees may be left standing, after the 
rest have been removed. 

" If a nursery be in such a situation that the young trees 
are in danger of being broken down by deep snows, either 
the fence on the windward side should be made so open 
that the wind may have a free passage through it, and drive 
av/ay the snow, or else the trees may be defended by 
staking. A stake a little taller than the tree, made of a 
slip of board, should be set close on the windward side. 



212 



OAK. 



and the top of the tree fastened to it with a soft string ; or 
two such stakes may be so set that the upper ends may 
meet over the top of the tree." — Beam. 

The seeds which are sown in a nurser}" should be se- 
lected from the best sorts of fruit. See p. 17 of this work. 

OAK. — Quercus. — IMiller's Gardener^s Diciionary says, 
oaks are best produced from the acorns in the places where 
the trees are to remain ; because those which are transplant- 
ed will not grow to so large a size, nor remain sound so long. 
He advises to plant the acorns as soon as they are ripe in 
October, which mil come up in the following April. But, 
says Dr. Deane, " Another writer directs that the acorns 
be gathered in autumn, and kept in a box or boxes of sand 
till the following spring. Then open them, and carefully 
plant those of them which are sprouted, which, he says, 
will not fail to come up. But no time should be allowed for 
the sprouts to dry. I incline to prefer this method, especially 
since I have tried that which is recommended by Miller with- 
out success. Not one in a hundred ever came up." 

The ground designed for a plantation of oaks, according 
to Miller, should have a good and durable fence, should be 
prepared by three or four ploughings and harro wings — the 
acorns should be taken from the largest and most thrifty trees 
— ^be sowed in drills about four feet asunder, and two inches 
deep, and two inches apart in the drills. The ground should 
be ploughed and hoed among them, during the first eight or 
ten years ; after two years, some of the plants should be 
dra^vn out where they are too close ; and so from time to 
time, as they grow larger, till they come to be eight feet 
distance each way, w^hen they will want no thinning for a 
long time. But after the trees come to be large, he thinks 
twenty-five or thirty feet apart will be the right distance. 

The oak thrives better in hilly than in boggy ground, 
but flourishes most luxuriantly on rich, black soils, or in 
strong, moist loam. It will grow, however, on almost any 
soil that is not too wet. 

The Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agricul- 
ture have offered a premium of one hundred dollars for 
the best plantation of white oak trees,, not less than one 
acre, nor fewer than one thousand trees per acre, to be 
raised from the acorn, and which trees shall be in the best 
thriving state on the first of September, 1827. 

It is observed, in the work called Gleanings^ &c. on 
Husbandry and Gardening^ that oaks, " when very young, 
may be transplanted twice or thrice, if, each time, the prin- 



OKRA," — ONION. 



213 



cipal root is cut off. Oaks raised froni the acorn without 
removing, on accouiit of tlie tap-root striking down into 
the ground, where there is less nourishment, grow slowly, 
but are, when they arrive at timber, the best ; being gene- 
rally fuller at heart, and more strong and lasting. Oak 
plants of one or two years' growth, after they have taken 
root, are often cut off a little above the ground, if they are 
stunted or crooked, and the second shoot is trusted to for 
the tree ; as it is found to grow with greater luxuriance 
than the first. 

OKRA.^ — Hibiscus esculentus, — A valuable garden plant, 
easily propagated by seeds sown in May. It is said to be 
excellent in cookery, as a sauce. Its ripe seeds, burned, 
and used as coffee, can scarcely be distinguished there- 
from. It should be planted about an inch deep, and hoed 
two or three times, like peas. M'Mahon says, " It may be 
sown with certainty of success at the time that Indian com 
is planted. Draw drills about an inch deep, and four feet 
asunder, into which drop the seeds at the distance of eight 
inches from one another, or rather drop two or three in 
each place, lest one should not grow, and cover them an 
inch in depth. As they advance in growth, earth them up 
two or three times as you do peas, and they will produce 
abundantly." 

ONION. — Allium cepa. — The common bulbous onion is 
a biennial plant, supposed to be a native of Asia. There 
are many varieties of this plant. Those mentioned in Mr. 
Russell's Catalogue are the following: — 

While Portugal, Top or tree onion, f Large red, 

Yellow, Silver-skinned, | Potato onion. 

Genuine Sfadeira, Strasburgii, j 

The Strasburg is most generally adopted for principal 
crops. The silver-skinned is reckoned among the best 
for pickling. The top or tree onion has the remarkable 
property of producing the onions at the top of the stalk, 
and is valuable for domestic use, particularly for pickling, 
in which they are excellent, and superior in flavour to the 
common kinds. It is also used for any other purpose that 
onions usually are. It is perennial, and propagated by 
planting the bulbs in spring or autumn, either the roots, 
bulbs, or those on the top of the stalks." — RusselVs CatU" 
logue. 

Soil and culture. — The onion, " to attain a good size, re* 
quires rich, mellow ground, on a dry sub-soil. If the soil be 
poor or exhausted, recruit it with a compost of fresh loam 



214 



ONION. 



and well-consumed dung, avoiding to use stable-dung in a 
rank, unreduced state. Turn in the manure to a moderate 
depth ; and, in digging the ground, let it be broken fine. 
Grow pickles in poor, light ground, to keep them small. 
The market-gardeners at Hexham sow their onion-seed oii 
the same ground for twenty or more years in succession, but 
annually manure the soil. After digging and levelling the 
ground, the manure, in a very rotten state, is spread upon it, 
the onion-seed sown upon the manure, and covered with 
earth from the alleys, and the crops are abundant, and ex- 
cellent in quality." — Hort, Trans, i. 121. 

Deane's New England Farmer says, A spot of ground 
should be chosen for them, which is moist and sandy ; be- 
cause they require much heat and a considerable degree of 
moisture. A low situation, where the sand has been washed 
down from a neighbouring hill, is very proper for them. 
And if it be the wash of a sandy road, so much the better. 
The most suitable manures are old, rotten cow and horse- 
dung mixed, ashes, but especially soot. A small quantity 
of ashes or sand, or both, should be spread over them after 
sowing, especially if the soil be not sandy. And it is not 
amiss to roll the ground after sowing ; or harden the sur- 
face with the back of a shovel." 

Mr. Armstrong says, " It is propagated either by the seed 
or by the bulbs. In the first case, you sow in shallow 
drills, twelve or fourteen inches apart ; cover with mould, 
and, when the plants come up, thin them, so that they may 
stand three or four inches from each other. The sooner 
this is done in the spring, after the earth has acquired a 
temperature favourable to vegetation, the better will be 
your crop. It only remains to keep the earth loose and 
clean about the roots, and, if the vegetation be too vigorous, 
to break down the tops, so as to determir e the juices to the 
bulbs. In the other case you but employ the small and 
half-grown onion of the preceding fall instead of seed." 

Mr. Hubbard, of Concord, Mass. in an article published 
in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. iii. p. 89, says, " The soil ought 
to be a deep^ black loam^ that will crumble fine when the 
plough passes through it ; such as is easily raked smooth 
and pulverized. A heavy, clammy soil, that adheres to- 
gether when both wet and dry — a dry, clayey, or a sandy 
soil, will not answer. I know of no vegetable that is so dif- 
ficult to please with a soil, as the onion : though they will 
grow well, yet they will not ripen, but hold green through- 
out the fall, and many of them will be what are generally 



ONION. 



215 



known by the name of scullions, with the neck stiff and 
green ; whereas those on suitable ground are ripe and dry 
by the first of September. Rotten stable-manure, made in 
the winter preceding the spring in which it is put on the 
land, is generally made use of, to be spread on the ground, 
and ploughed in. I have a piece of land four rods square, 
on which onions have been raised, I suppose, these eighty 
years ; and since I have improved it, I have yearly spread 
upon it five cart-loads of manure, such as are usually 
drawn by one pair of oxen ; and have raised from four to 
seven hundred bunches of onions upon it, at three gmd a 
half pounds to the bunch, of which about sixteen make 
a bushel." 

Mr. Hubbard puts the seed into the ground as soon as 
the frost is out, and it is sufiiciently dry to be worked ; 
frequently the latter part of March, but more frequency 
in the first days of April. He has always planted them in 
hills, which is the general practice in Concord. " My 
method of preparing the ground and planting the seed is^ 
iirst, carry on the manure, and spread it as even as possible, 
when the ground is to be ploughed ^eep ; then let the plat 
be divided into beds, about three feet nine inches wide ; 
to do which the easier way is to stretch a line across, lining 
one bed at a time ; after this, let a man, with a shovel or a 
potato-hoe, make an alley through the whole piece, to 
separate the beds, about four inches deep, and sufiiciently 
wide to admit a person to walk in it. Then let the lumps 
be beat fine, levelling the ground, and shaping the beds ; 
;svhich, after being raked smooth, must be divided into 
squares of eight or nine inches. This is best done by a line ; 
or it is sufiiciently exact to draw a heavy rope backwards 
and forwards. Now let the seeds, six or seven in a hill, 
more or less, be dropped into the corners of the squares, 
and covered with mould, about half an inch deep, pressed 
down with the hand." 

A writer for the N, E. Farmer, vol. iii. p. 249, with the 
signature J. M., recommends " a moist, black soil," as best, 
but says a free, deep loam will answer very well." " The 
onion is not by nature inclined to root deep. You must 
give it a hard bottom to grow on, and keep your manure 
on the surface within reach of the roots ; then they will 
grow large, flat, and handsome." — Advises to sow the same 
piece for several successive years. I have always sowed 
onions in drills, about eighteen inches apart, to give fair 
play to the hoe. Onions must be sowed as early a» ^>oissi- 



216 



ONIONc 



ble after the frost is out of the ground : in this climate, if 
the seed is not in the ground before the first of May, there 
is but little chance for a crop. It must be covered siigbtlj, 
and stamped well over with the hoe to close it well. I 
would recommend, as most essential, to sow the seed spar- 
ingly. Even the best gardeners are apt to put in too much 
seed. The consequence is, that the young plants come 
up so thick that they run up spiry and weak ; and, when 
you come to thin them, you find great difiiculty to pull up 
so many without injuring those that you leave and the 
worst injury is what you do to the roots, which you tear 
and loosen. Therefore have seed of your own raising, or 
that you know is fresh, and sow sparingly." 

In the N, E. Farmer ^ vol. iii. p. 265, are the observations 
of I. Tucker, Esq. of Salem, Mass., who says, " The land 
should be ploughed about four inches in depth, and har- 
rowed so as to make it very fine; the manure, which 
should always be a rich compost, should be ploughed in 
and thoroughly mixed; the land should then be rolled with 
a heavy roller, to form a close bottom for the bulbs to form 
upon, and at the same time not so hard as to prevent the 
small roots of the plant from penetrating. The best onions 
and the largest crops are produced where the bulbs grow 
almost entirely on the top of the ground. After the ground 
has been rolled, and before the seeds are sown, the beds 
should be raked with a sharp iron rake, to prepare a finely 
pulverized drill for reception of the seed ; and, after the 
seeds are sown, the drill should be pressed vdtb a board and 
sufficient weight to bring the earth into close contact with 
the seed. Care should be taken in selecting seed ; none 
should be sown but such as will be sure to vegetate ; and 
it would be well if no more seed were to be sown than 
you would have plants to remain and grow in the drill. 
It would be superfluous to add that, if you would have a 
good crop of onions, you must not permit a crop of weeds 
to grow in the same bed ; they will not grow well to- 
gether." 

Mr. Adams Knight, of Newbury, Mass., received a premi- 
um of twenty dollars for having raised, in 1822, the greatest 
quantity of onions, being six hundred and fifty-one bushels 
on one acre. " The soil is a rich, gravelly loam, v/ith a grav- 
el bottom : in 1821 it was cultivated with onions and cabba- 
ges, and was manured with about five cords of barn manure, 
and produced a good crop : after the crop was off the ground, 
there wer^ five cords af bam m^anure and two and a half 



ONION. 



217 



of leached ashes ploughed in : in April, 1822, it was once 
ploughed, and sowed in rows 14 inches apart, which took 
between three and four pounds of seed : in the course of 
the season, it was hoed betw^een the rows, and weeded four 
times : in September, the onions w^ere harvested, and there 
were six hundred and fifty-one bushels. The entire ex- 
pense of cultivating this acre of onions, including twenty- 
one dollars and thirty-seven cents, the cost of the manure, 
was fifty-seven dollars and thirty-eight cents." 

The work entitled Gleanings^ &ic. in Husbandry^ directs 
to sow onions, if possible, in a dry time, and to tread them 
in, in light ground. 

Loudon says, " When onions are to be drawn young, 
two ounces of seed will be requisite for a bed four feet by 
twenty-four ; but when to remain for bulbing, one ounce 
will suffice for a bed five feet by twenty-four feet." 

Deane says, " The ground should be dug or ploughed in 
autumn, not very deep ; and then made very fine in the 
spring, and all the gross roots and roots of weeds taken 
out ; then laid in beds four feet wdde. Four rows of holes 
are made in a bed, the rows ten inches apart, and the ho'es 
in the row s ten. About half a dozen seeds are put in a 
hole, or more, if there be any danger of their not coming 
up well, and buried an inch under the surface. They 
grow very well in bunches. Though the largest onions 
are those which grow singly some inches apart, those which 
are more crow^ded produce larger crops. And the middle- 
sized onions are better for eating than the largest." The 
last week in April is the proper time for sowing, according 
to this author. 

The course of culture recommended by Abercrombie for 
the summer, and what he calls winter-laid-by crops, is as 
follows : — " Allot an open compartment, and lay it out in 
beds, from three to five feet in wddth. Sow broad-cast, 
equally over the rough surface, moderately thick, bed and 
bed separately, and rake in the seed lengthwise each bed, 
in a regular manner. When the plants are three or four 
inches high, in May and June, let them be timely cleared 
from w^eeds, and let the principal crop be thinned, either by 
hand, or with a small, two-inch hoe ; thinning the plants to 
intervals of from three to five inches in the main crops de- 
signed for full bulbing ; or, some beds may remain mode- 
rately thick for drawing young, by successive thinnings, to 
the above distance. For the Spanish, from seed obtained 
19 



218 



ONION. 



immediately from Spain, the final distance sbouid be six ot 
seven inches. Keep the whole very clear from weeds, in 
their young and advancing state. The plants will begin 
bulbing a little in June ; more fully in July ; and be fully 
grown in August to large bulbs. In July or August, when 
the leaves begin to dry at the points, and turn yellow, lay 
the stems down close to the ground, bending them about 
two inches up the neck, which promotes the ripening of 
the bulb, particularly in wet or backward seasons. The 
crop of full bulbers will be ready to take up towards the 
middle of August. When the necks shrink, and the leaves 
decay, pull them wholly up in due time : spread them on a 
compartment of dry ground, in the full sun, to dry and har- 
den completely, turning them every two or three days ; and 
in a week or fortnight they will be ready to house. Clear 
off the grossest part of th(^ leaves, stalks, and fibres ; then 
deposit the bulbs in some close, dry apartment, in which 
sometimes turn them over, and pick out any that decay ; 
and they will thus keep sound and good, all winter and 
spring, till May following." 

Culture of a winter-standing crop^ to be dratvn for use the 
succeeding spring, — " Allot a soil rather more light and 
sandy for the summer crop, on a sub-soil at least equally 
dry. The compartment, especially for any of the biennial 
kinds, should lie warm and sheltered. The beds may be 
three or four feet wide, running parallel to the best aspect. 
The medium time for the principal sowing falls about the 
7th of August ; and, for a secondary crop, near the 25th. 
Sew the bulbing sorts and the Welsh perennial separately ; 
distribute the seed pretty thickly. If the soil be dry and 
light, tread down the seed evenly along the surface of each 
bed, and then rake it in neatly. When the plants are come 
up one, two, or three inches, carefully hand-weed in time, 
before any rising weeds spread ; not thinning the plants, 
because they should remain thick, for their chance in win- 
ter, and to be, by degrees, drawn thinningly, for use in 
salads and otherwise ; but reserve a principal supply to re- 
main till spring. Observe, the Welsh onion, in particular, 
commonly dies down to the ground about mid-winter ; but 
the root part, remaining wholly sound, sends up a new, 
vigorous stem in February and March. At the opening of 
spring, let the whole of both sorts be well cleared from 
weeds ; they will continue fit to draw young during all the 
spring months, till May ; then let some of the bulbous kinds 



519 



be thinned, to remain for early bulbing in June and July; 
but, as they will soon after shoot up in stalk, they are chief- 
ly for present use, not being eligible as keeping-onions." 

To preserve onions through the winter, they may be tied 
together, forming what are called ropes or bunches of on- 
ions, and kept in a dry and cool cellar. Moisture rots, and 
warmth causes them to vegetate. A considerable degree 
of cold will not injure them, for they resist frost in conse- 
quence of a spirituous substance of which they are in part 
composed. Searing their fibrous roots with a hot iron will 
prevent them from sprouting. 

To obtain seed from onions, they should be planted early 
in beds, about nine inches apart. The largest and soundest 
are best. They should be kept free from weeds; and, 
when the heads of the flowers begin to appear, each plant 
must have a stake about four feet long, and its stems be 
loosely tied to the stake by a soft string. Or the stems 
may be supported by stakes, six or eight feet apart, and 
pack-thread or rope-yarn fastened from one to the other, 
a little below the heads. When ripe, the heads are to be 
cut (or the seed will shed) and spread ifi the sun, on coarse 
cloths, to dry; being, however, taken under shelter at night, 
and in rain. When the seed is beaten out, it is to be dried 
one day in the sun, and then put in bags to preserve for 
sowing. 

Dr. Deane, and Mr. Nicholson, author of the Farmer^ s 
Assistant^ condemn the practice of beating or breaking 
down the tops of onions in order to increase the size of the 
root. Mr. Nicholson observed, " The practice is undoubt- 
edly injurious, as we have seen confirmed by experiment." 

^' Culture of the potato onion, — This variety, erroneously 
supposed to have been brought from Egypt by the British 
army about 1805, was grown in Driver's nursery, in 1796, 
and has been known in Devonshire for upwards of twenty 
years. It is thus cultivated at Arundel Castle, by Maher : — 
Having thoroughly prepared the ground, and formed it into 
beds four feet wide, ' I draw lines the whole length, three 
to each bed, and, with the end of the rake-handle, make a 
mark (not a drill) on the surface; on this mark I place the 
onions, ten inches apart; I then cover them with leaf- 
mould, rotten dung, or any other light compost, just so that 
the crowns appear exposed. Nothing more is necessary 
to be done until they shoot up their tops ; then, on a dry 
day, they are earthed up, like potatoes, and kept free from 
weeds, until they are taken up. In the west of England, 



220 



ORCHARD. 



where this kind of onion is much cultivated, I understand 
that it is the practice to plant on the shortest day, and take 
up on the longest. The smallest onions used for planting 
swell, and become very fine and large, as well as yield off- 
sets ; the middle-sized and larger bulbs produce greater 
clusters.' — Hort, Trans, vol. iii. p. 305. 

" Dymond states, {Hort, Trans, vol. iii, p. 306,) that in 
Devonshire it is planted in rows, twelve inches apart, and 
six inches' distance in the row ; that the plants are earthed 
up as they grow, and that the smaller bulbs yield a greater 
increase than the larger. A similar practice is adopted by 
some Scotch cultivators. — Caled. Hort, Mem. vol. i. p. 343, 
and vol. iv. p. 216. 

" Wedge wood does not earth up, and finds his bulbs ac- 
quire a much larger size than when that practice is adopted. 
— Hort! Trans, vol. iii. p. 403. The fact is, as we have 
observed in generalizing on the subject of earthing up. sur-- 
face-bulbs, as the onion, turnip, &c., are always prevenied 
from attaining their full size by that operation, whatever 
they may gain in other respects." — Loudon, 

Use, — The properties of onions in no respect differ from 
those of garlic, excepting that the former are less pungent, 
(see Garlic,) and are, therefore, more generally used for 
culinary purposes. Many persons, however, dislike them on 
account of the strong and disagreeable smell which they com- 
municate to the breath. But this inconvenience is obviated 
by eating a few raw leaves of parsley, immediately after par- 
taking of onions, the scent of which is thus nearly removed, 
and they are, at the same time, rendered more easy of di- 
gestion. Vinegar also answers the same purpose." — Dom, 
Encyc, 

ORCHARD. — Soil, — Any soil is suitable for an or- 
chard, which produces good crops of grain, grass, or gar- 
den vegetables ; but a good, deep, sandy loam, not too dry, 
nor very moist, is to be preferred. In the stifFest part of the 
ground, you may plant pear-trees ; in the lighter, apples, 
plums, and cherries; and, in the lightest, peach, nectarine, 
and apricots. 

Aspect, — A south-eastern aspect is generally recom- 
mended ; but, when this exposes the trees to the sea w^inds, 
a south-western maybe better. Some recommend a north- 
ern aspect, and planting trees the north side of a wall, to 
prevent them from budding and blowing so early in the 
spring as to expose them to frosts. 

Preparation of the ground, — If the land be sw^arded, it 



ORCHARD. 



221 



should be broken up and tilled at least one year before the 

trees are planted. 

Manure. — Rotten leaves, or the mould formed by the de- 
composition of leaves, is recommended by Forsyth. Com- 
post, or rich earth, is said to be preferable to dung, which 
encourages insects and blight. M'Mahon says, " It le well 
known that where hogs and poultry are constant!} running 
over the ground, the trees seldom fail of a crop, which is the 
best proof that manure is necessary. Any manure will suit 
an orcnard ; but the sweepings of cow-houses, hog-pens, 
slaughter-houses, poultry and pigeon-houses, emptying of 
drains, &c. are more disposed to facilitate the growth of fruit- 
trees than stable-manure. However, any kind of manure 
Ls better than none at all." 

" Hog-dung is accounted to have a peculiar virtue in in 
vigorating weak trees. Rotted turf, or any vegetable ref- 
use, is a general manure, excellent for all soils not already 
too rich. For an exhausted soil, where a fruit-tree, which 
has been an old, profitable occupant, is wished to be con- 
tinued, a dressing of animal matter is a powerful restora- , 
tive ; such as hogs' or bullocks' blood, ofFal from the 
slaughter-house, refuse of skins and leather, decomposed 
carrion ; also urine diluted with water. In a soil which 
does not effervesce with acids, a little lime, dug in a spit 
deep, is beneficial to fruit-trees." — Abercrombie, 

Distance of trees in an orchard, — " It should be considered, 
at the time of planting, to what size the trees are likely to 
glow. And they should be set so far asunder, that their 
limbs will not be likely to interfere with each other, when 
they arrive at full growth. In a soil that suits them best 
they will become largest. Twenty-five feet may be the 
right distance in some soils ; but thirty-five feet will not be 
too much in the best, or even forty." — Deane, 

Cropping, — " It is proper to crop the ground among new- 
planted orchard-trees, for a few years, in order to defray 
the expense of hoeing and cultivating it ; which should be 
done until the temporary plants are removed, and the whole 
be sown down to grass. But it is by no means advisable 
to carry the system of cropping with vegetables to such an 
excess as is frequently done. If the bare expense of culti- 
vating the ground, and the rent, be paid, by such cropping, 
it should be considered enough. As the trees begin to pro- 
duce fruit, begin also to relinquish cropping. When by 
their productions thev defray all expenses, crop no longer. 
19* 



223 



PARSLEY. 



I consider these as being wholesome rules, hoth for the 
trees and their owners.'^ — Loudon, 

Orchards which are laid down to grass last longest ; hut 
it is necessary to keep the ground clear of weeds and grass, 
for some little distance from the roots. They may be pas- 
tured with calves and swine, and by the latter with much 
advantage, as they destroy the curculio, (see p. 175.) Sheep 
may be admitted, provided the trees are smeared with a 
coat of lime, or with Forsyth's composition ; but large cat- 
tle, which can reach up to the limbs of the trees, should 
not be suffered to run in an orchard. In Germany, they 
surround the roots of fruit-trees in grass-land with hemp- 
breakings, not only near the stock, but for some distance 
from the tree. The breakings of flax and spent tan are 
also recommended for the same purpose. 

Mr. Benjamin Wheeler, of Framingham, Mass., gives 
the following prescription of a wash for fruit-trees, which 
has been repeatedly tested, and found very useful : — " Dis- 
solve two pounds of potash, of the first quality, in seven 
quarts of water, for the bodies of the trees. If the limbs 
are covered with moss or lice, I take a painter's brush, and 
apply the solution to the moss, &c., with care not to touch 
the leaves or buds. It may be done at anytime of the 
year, when we are most at leisure. Once in from two to 
four years is generally sufficient. I have no general rule, 
however, but wash them as often as they appear to need it, 
which is always when the bark is not smooth." 

PARSLEY. — Apiura petroselmum. — The parsley is a har- 
dy biennial, a native of Sardinia. The varieties, according 
to Loudon, are. 

The common, plain-leaved, {sel- I The broad-leaved, or large-rooted 

dom cultivated ;) I Hamburgh, [cvliivated for its car- 

The curled or thick-leaved^ [most 1 rot-shaped root.) 

esteeimd ;) j 

Mr. Russell's Catalogue mentions the following kinds : 

Curled or doMbXe—Apium petrose- Hamburgh, or large-rooted, do. var* 

linum crisjyu/m ; tuberosum ; 

Dwarf curled, [v^ry much cur led,) Siberian, [ very hardy, single-leafed, 

do. do. andoffinefiijxaiijr.) 

and adds, " sown from April to August. Parsley seldom 
vegetates under five weeks after sowing. It is recom- 
mended to soak the seed twelve hours in water mixed 
with sulphur. This process, with attentive watering, will 
cause the seed to vegetate in less than a fortnight." The 



PARSLEY. 



223 



seed should be fresh. Loudon says, two years' old seed 
will not grow. 

Culture of the pot-herb kinds, — " One sowing in spring 
will mostly furnish young leaves all the year ; though, to 
answer a constant demand, many persons make successive 
sowings from February [in Great Britain] to May. Some 
also sow early in autumn for young parsley in winter and 
spring; but such a supply is better provided by cutting 
down established plants. Sow in a single drill along the 
edge of any compartment, or occasionally in rows nine 
or twelve inches asunder. Draw small drills, something 
less than an inch deep ; in which drop the seed moderate- 
ly thick, and cover a little above half an inch. The plants 
will come up in three or four weeks, and, when two or 
three inches high, may be gathered as wanted, all the sum- 
mer, winter, and following spring till May, when they will 
go to seed. Have always a young crop sowed timely in 
the spring to succeed the declining old plants. In gather- 
ing pot-herb parsley, cut close and regular. In summer, 
v/hen the plants grow rank, yielding more leaves than can 
be used, cut them close to the bottom, and they will shoot 
up stocky, and in a regular, close growth. Observe also 
to do the same in autumn, about the end of September, 
that the plants may form heads of fresh young leaves be- 
fore winter. On the approach of frosty weather, protect 
them with haum," straw, or any thing else, which will 
serve for a defence against cold. 

Culture of Hamburgh 'parsley. — To obtain large roots, 
allot a compartment where the soil is deep, and has been 
well digged. Any common mould will suit, if dry and not 
too rich. Sow in February, [soon as the frost is well out 
of the ground,] March, or early in April, in one or more 
beds, either in drills nine inches asunder, or broad-cast, 
and rake in. The plants should be thinned to nine inches 
distance, to give room for proper growth in the roots ; for 
use in August, September, October, and thence till the fol- 
lowing spring. On the approach of frost, take up some 
roots, and preserve them in sand. A sowing may be made 
the third week in June, where young roots are wanted in 
winter." 

The Siberian, or single-leafed parsley, is cultivated in 
lields. It may be sown very early with oats or other 
spring grain, mixed with grass seed. — See Encyc. of Agr. 
parag. 5081. 

Uses, — This herb is much used and highly valued for 



224 



l*ARSNEP> 



culinary purposes as a pot-herb, for garnishes, &e. The 
Hamburgh parsley is esteemed for its large, carrot-like root, 
drawn in autumn and winter for the table. In field culti- 
vation it is said to be a preservative from rot in sheep, and 
efficacious in curing greasy and surfeited horses, &c.— ^See 
New England Farmer y vol. vi. page 182. 

PARSNEP. — Pastinaca sativa. — Loudon observes, that 
" There is only one variety of the parsnep in general cul- 
tivation in Great Britain, but the French possess three — 
the Coquaine^ the Lisbonaise^ and the Siam. The Coquainey 
Dr. Maculloch informs us, (Caled. Ilort, Mem, vol.1, p. 
408,) is much culti.vated in Guernsey and Jersey. The 
roots run sometimes four feet deep, and are rarely so small 
in circumference as six inches, having been known to 
reach sixteen. The leaves of this variety grow to a con- 
siderable height, and proceed from the whole crown of the 
root. The Lisbonaise does not extend to so great a depth 
as the Coquaine ; but the root is equally good in quality, 
and what is lost in length is gained in thickness. The 
leaves are small and short, and only proceed from the cen- 
tre of the crown. The Siam has a root of a yellowish col- 
our, not very large, but tender, and more rich in taste than 
the other varieties." 

Soil, — The soil should be light, deep, and free from 
stones. It should be dug or trenched before sowing, one 
good spade deep, at least, (some writers say two spades 
deep,) being careful to pulverize the soil thoroughly, that 
the roots may have no obstruction to prevent their run- 
ning down long and straight. If the soil be proper for 
them, it is said they will not require much manure ; and 
w^hat is used should be perfectly decomposed, or, if recent, 
be deposited at the bottom of the trench. They do not 
impoverish the soil, but, like onions, may be raised many 
years in the same spot. 

Seed estimate^ and sowing,— Sow as early as the ground is 
thawed, if not too wet. Deane observed, that " some 
sow them in the fall ; but that is not a good practice, be- 
cause the ground will grow too close and stiff for want of 
stirring in the spring ; v/hich cannot well be performed in 
gardens, without danger of injuring the roots. And weeds 
will be more apt to abound among them if they be sown 
in autumn." Loudon says, " For abed five feet by twenty, _ 
the plants to remain thinned to eight inches' distance, half an 
ounce of seed is the usual proportion." Deane recommends 
sowing them in rows across beds, fifteen inches apart^ 



PARSNEP. 



225 



and to allow six inches from plant to plant at the last thin- 
ning, which may be early, as they are not often hurt by 
insects. 

Culture, — When the plants are about one, two or three 
inches high, in May or June, let them be thinned and 
cleared from weeds either by hand or small hoeing. Keep 
them afterwards clear from v/eeds, till the leaves cover the 
ground, after which no further culture will be required. 
Parsneps will continue growing till the frosts are very 
severe, and are not good for use till they have become ripe, 
late in autumn. Any thing which is to be used early in 
the season may be sown with parsneps, such as carrots to 
draw young, radishes, lettuces, &c. 

Preserving during winter. — The parsnep is not so liable 
as the carrot to be hurt by frost if left in the ground, and 
some let them remain where they grew through winter. 
But the best way is to dig them some time in November. 
They should not be wounded nor bruised in digging ; nei- 
ther should the tops be cut off very close to the roots^ nor 
any of the lateral roots cut oft'. In either case the roots will 
rot or become bitter. ''Many lose their parsneps, or 
make them sprout, by putting them in a warm cellar. It is 
better to keep them in some out-house, or in a cellar that 
freezes ; for no degree of frost ever hurts them. But to 
prevent their drying too much, it is best to cover them with 
dry sods, or else bury them in sand that has no moisture 
in it. Beach sand is improper, because the salt in it will 
make them vegetate." — Deane, 

Field culture of parsneps, — In giving an account of the 
agriculture of the island of Jersey, an English writer says, 
" Parsneps are grown by every farmer, and either by the 
spade culture alone, by the plough and spade, or by the 
small and great plough : any soil in good heart and tilth 
suits them, but peculiarly a deep loam ; and in the same 
spot, generally, are raised beans, peas, cabbage, and, occa- 
sionally, potatoes. 

" When the ploughing or digging is completed, the field 
is once harrowed ; straight lines are then drawn across, by 
means of a gardener's rake, usually from north to south ; 
women then proceed with dibbles, and set the beans in 
rows, at a distance of four inches, or five inches, from bean 
to bean, in four, three, and sometimes two ranks of beans, 
leaving intervals of between five and six feet between each 
of the sown rows. In the use of the dibble, and in drop- 
ping the beans, the women have acquired considerable 



226 



PEA. 



dexterity. In many instances they are followed by chil- 
dren, who drop into each hole made by the dibble, after 
the bean, three or four peas ; the parsnep seed is then sown 
at the rate of one third to one half of a bushel to the acre." 
— Quayle^s General View of the Norman Islands, 

Use, — The writer above quoted asserts, that, in the island 
of Jersey, parsnep " is eaten with meat, with milk, and 
with butter ; but not, as is the common mode of using it as 
human food in England, with salt fish, or, as in Ireland, to- 
gether with potatoes. 

" The next most valuable application of this root is hog- 
feeding. At first it is given to the animal in a raw state, 
afterwards boiled or steamed, and finally, for a week or 
fortnight, with bean and oat-meal. A hog treated in this 
way is sufficiently fatted for killing in about six weeks. 
Its flesh is held superior to that arising from any other food, 
and does not waste in boiling. 

" Bullocks are also fatted with parsneps in about three 
months ; their flesh is here considered of superior flavour 
to any other beef, and commands, on that account, an ad- 
ditional half-penny in tlie pound on the price. To milch 
cows they are also usually given ; on this diet, the cream 
assumes a yellow colour. By the accounts here given, it 
appears, in proportion to the milk, to be more abundant, 
than when the animal is kept on any other food whatever. 
When the cow receives at the rate of thirty-five pounds 
per day, with hay, seven quarts, ale measure, of the milk 

f produce seventeen ounces of butter. It is generally al- 
owed that the flavour of the butter is superior to any other 
produced in winter. 

" Geese are sometimes shut up with the hogs to fatten 
on parsneps, which they will eat raw. The root is also 
given boiled ; and for a week before killing they are fed 
with oats or barley only. Horses eat this root greedily ; 
but in this island it is never given them, as it is alleged 
that, fed on this food, their eyes are injured. About Mor- 
lais, horses are not only ordinarily fed on parsneps, but they 
are considered as the best of all food, superior even to 
oats." 

To save seed. — Transplant some of the best roots as 
early as the frost will permit in the spring, two feet asun- 
der, inserted over the crown. They will produce seed 
plentifully in autumn. 

PEA. — Pisum sativum, — The pea is a hardy annual, a 
native of the south of Europe, cultivated in Great Britain 



PEA. 



227 



from time immemorial, and in this country from its first 
settlement. 

Varieties. — These are numerous : those mentioned in Mr. 
Russell's Catalogue are, 



Early Washington, or true May 
Pea, {extra early and Jine — 
grovjs to the height of two and a 
half feet ;) 

Early double-blossomed, frame, 
[early and fine — three feel ;) 

Early frame, [two and a half 
feet ;) 

Early golden Hotspur, [three feet,) 
Early Charlton, [three feet ;) 
Dwarf blue imperial, [two feet, a 

superior vainety ;) 
Dwarf blue Prussian, [two and a 

half feet ;) 



Dwarf Spanish, or fan, [one foot ;) 
Dwarf marrowfat, [three and a half 
feet;) 

Dwarf sugar, [pods eaten — three feet 

Matchless, or true tall maiTowfat, 
[six feet ;) 

Knight's tall marrows ; 

Tall, crooked podded sugar, [pods 
eaten — six feet ;) 

Ladies' finger maiTows, [a prodigi- 
ous bearer, and delicate eating pea ;) 

New nonpareil pea, (a new and pro' 
ductive sort from Scotland ;) 

Knight's dwarf marrows. 



^' The Charltons are not only very early, but great bear- 
ers, and excellent peas for the table ; and are therefore 
equally well fitted for the early and forward succession 
crops, and inferior to few even for the main summer crops. 
The frame pea may indeed be raised without the assistance 
of heat for a forward crop, and, if a genuine sort, will fruit 
a few days sooner than the Charlton; but it grows low, 
and bears scantily. The Hotspur is hardy and prolific, 
and makes returns nearly as quick as the Charlton, and about 
a fortnight before the marrowfat. The sorts already spe- 
cified,therefore,embrace the best for sowings made from the 
end of October till the middle of January, and for late crops, 
raised between the middle of June and the beginning of 
August. The Charltons and Hotspur may be sown in 
May for late fall crops ; in June for a smaller supply ; and in 
July along with the frames for the last returns." — Loudon. 

Times of sowing, — " The dwarfs are generally employed 
in hot-bed culture, which, however, succeeds badly, and 
is neither worth preserving nor describing, and the less so, 
as early crops may be more certainly had by sowing in the 
fall, in sheltered situations, and covering during the winter 
with a layer of leaves, and another of long stable-litter 
loosely applied to keep the leaves in their places. After 
the earth takes a temperature favourable to vegetation, 
your pea sowings should be made once a fortnight, to keep 
up a regular and successive supply." — Armstrong. 

Quantity of seed, — Of the small, early kinds, one pint 
will sow a row of twenty yards ; for the larger sorts, for 
main crops, the same measure will sow a row of thirty- 
three yards." 

Prr^tess in gowirig.--^''^ For early soYts, make the drills 



228 ' p^A. 

one inch and a half deep ; and let parallel drills be two 
feet and a half, three or four feet asunder. Peas that are 
to grow without sticks require the least room. For sum- 
mer crops and large sorts, make the drills two inches 
deep, and four, five or six feet asunder. As to the dis- 
tances along the drill, distribute the peas according to 
their size, and the season : the frame, three in the space of 
an inch ; the Charltons, Hotspur, and dwarf marrowfat, 
two in an inch ; the Prussian blue, and middle-sized sorts, 
three in two inches ; the large marrowfat and Knight's a 
full inch apart ; the moratto, rouncivals, and most larger 
sorts, an inch and a half apart, and the Patagonian, two 
inches." 

Soil and situation, — The soil should be moderately 
rich, and the deeper and stronger for the lofty growers. 
Peas are not assisted, but hurt, by unreduced dung recently 
turned in. A fresh, sandy loam, or road-stuff, and a little 
decomposed vegetable matter, is the best manure. The 
soil for the early crops should be very dry, and rendered so, 
where the ground is moist, by mixing sand with the earth 
of the drills." — Loudon, 

Armstrong says, A loose and warm soil is most fa- 
vourable to this vegetable, which, by the way, is neither 
improved in quality nor quantity by stable manure. The 
soil of Ciichy, and of Point de Jour des Colombe, &c. in 
the neighbourhood of Paris, is a pure sand, principally de- 
voted to pea crops, and yielding these most abundantly 
without the application of dung new or old." 

Subsequent culture, — As the plants rise from half an 
inch high to two or three inches, begin to draw earth to 
the stems, doing this when the ground is in a dry state, 
and earthing gradually higher as the stems ascend. At the 
slme time, with the hoe, loosen the ground between the 
young plants, and cut down rising weeds. Early crops 
should be protected during hard frosts by dry straw, or 
other light litter, laid upon sticks or brush wood ; but re- 
move the covering as soon as the weather turns mild. If, 
in April, May, and the course of the summer, dry weather 
occurs, watering will be necessary, especially to plants in 
blossom and swelling the fruit ; and this trouble will be 
repaid in the produce. Rows partly cut off may be made 
up by transplanting. In dry weather, water, and in hot 
weather, shade, until the plants strike. All peas fruit bet- 
ter for sticking, and continue longer productive, especially 
the larger sorts. Stick the plants, when from six to twelve 



PEA, 



229 



inches high, as soon as they begin to vine. Provide 
branchy sticks of such a height as the sort will require j 
for the franie and Leadman's dv/arf, three feet high ; for 
the Charlton and middle-sized, four or five feet ; for the 
marrowfat and larger kinds, six or eight feet ; for the roun- 
cival, and for Knight's marrow-pea, nine or ten feet. Place 
a row of sticks to *^ach line of peas, on the most sunny side^ 
east or south, thai the attraction of the sun may incline the 
plants towards the sticks. Place about half the number on 
the opposite side, and let both rov/s stand rather wider at 
top than at the ground. Some gardeners stop the leading 
shoot of the most early crop, when in blossom ; a device 
which accelerates the setting and maturity of the fruit. 

To forward an early crop. — " Sow or plaat in lines from 
east to w^est, and stick a row of spruce-fir [or other ever- 
green] branches along the north side of every row, and 
sloping so as to bend over the plants, at one foot or eigh- 
teen inches from the ground. As the plants advance iii 
height, vary the position of the branches, so as they may 
ahvays protect them from perpendicular cold or rain, and yet 
leave them open to the full influence of the spring sun. Some 
cover during nights, and in severe weather w ith two boards, 
nailed together lengthwise, at right angles, which forms & 
very secure and easily-managed covering, but excludes light* 
A better plan would be to glaze one of the sides, to be 
kept to the south, and to manage such row-glasses, as they 
might be called, when over peas, beans, spinage, &c., as 
hand-glasses are managed, when over cauliflow^er ; that is, 
to take them off in fine weather, or raise them constantly 
or occasionally by brick-bats, or other props, as the weather 
and the state of the crop might require." — Loudon. 

Management of a late crop. — The best variety for this 
purpose is Knight's marrow-pea, which may be sown at 
intervals of ten days, from the beginning to the end of June. 
" The ground is dug over in the usual way, and the spaces 
to be occupied by the future rows of peas are well soaked 
v/ith w ater. The mould upon each side is then collected 
so as to form ridges seven or eight inches above the pre- 
vious level of the ground, and these r4dges are well watered* 
The seeds are now sown in single rows, along the tops of 
the ridges. The plants grow vigorously, owing to the 
depth of soil and abundant moisture. If dry weather at 
any time set in, water is applied profu^ly once a week. 
In this way, the plants continue green and vigorous, resist-* 
20 



230 



PEA, 



ing mildew, and yielding fruit till subdued by frost" — HgtI 
Trans, vol. ii. 

To save seed. — Like other vegetables, the pea is sus- 
ceptible of considerable improvement, and by the simple 
means of marking the finest plants of each variety, and 
keeping them for seed. Wilson's frame, and the Knight 
pea, have been formed in this way, ai»J afford sufnclent 
proof of the wonders produced by a very small degree of 
observation and care." — Armstrong, 

Field-culture of the pea, — The most common mode of 
sowing peas is broad-cast ; but the advantages of the row- 
culture, in a crop so early committed to the ground, must 
be obvious. Loudon says, " In Kent, where immense 
quantities of peas are raised, both for gathering green, aud 
for selling ripe to the seedsmen, they are generally sown ia 
rows from eighteen inches to three feet asunder, according 
to the kind, and well cultivated between. Peas, laid a foot 
below the surface, will vegetate ; but the most approved 
depth is six inches in light soil, and four inches in clay 
soil, for which reason they ought to be sown under furrow, 
when the ploughing is delayed till spring. Of all grain, 
beans excepted, they are in the least danger of being buried 
too deep." — Loudon, 

Deane observed, that "For field-peas, land that is newly 
ploughed out of sward is generally accounted best ; and 
land which is high and dry, and has not been much dunged. 
A light, loamy soil is most suitable for them ; and if it 
abound with slaty stones, it is the better. But they will 
do in any dry soil. The manures that suit peas best, are 
marl and lime. Our farmers do not commonly allow a 
sufficient quantity of seed for peas, in broad-cast sowing. 
When peas are sowed thin, the plants will lie on the 
ground, and perhaps rot : when they are thick, the plants 
will hold each other up with their tendrils, forming a con- 
tinued web, and will have more benefit of the air. 

Insects and diseases, — The Mass. Agricultural Reposilonj, 
for June, 1822, contains some remarks of the Hon. T. Pick- 
ering, relative to a bug or fly, (bruchus pisi^) which preys 
on the pea, in v/hich he observes, that an effectual remedy 
for this evil is late sowing ; but the hot sun of June will so 
pinch the vines of the late sown peas, that the crop will be 
small, unless the land be moist as well as rich. He then 
details some experiments, by which he concludes that this 
insect is limited to a certain period for depositing its eggs j 



PEA. 



2S1 



and if the tender pods are not found till that period has 
passed, the peas will be free from bugs. Col. Worthing- 
ton, of Rensellaer county, N. Y., " sowed his peas on the 
lOtii of June, six years in succession, and a bug has never 
been seen in his peas. Whereas his neighbours, who have 
not adopted this practice, have scarcely a pea without a 
bug in it. He supposes the season for depositing the egg 
of the pea-bug is passed before the peas are in flower." — 
Mem. of N. Y, Board of Agriculture^ vol. ii. p. 23. " The 
only insect that commonly injures our peas is a small brown 
bug or fly, the egg [or larva] of which is deposited in them 
when they are young, and the pods easily perforated. The 
insect does not come out of its nest till he is furnished with 
short wings. They diminish the peas in which they lodge 
nearly one half, and their leavings are fit only for the food 
of swine. The bugs, however, will be all gone out if you 
keep them to the following autumn. But they who eat 
buggy peas the winter after they are raised, must run the 
venture of eating the insects." — Deane^s N, E. Farmer. 
The same writer recommends, when seed-peas are known 
or suspected to contain insects, to scald them a quarter of a 
minute in boiling water, spread them about, and sow them 
without delay. If any of the bugs should be in the peas, 
this scalding will destroy them ; and the peas, instead of 
being hurt, will come up the sooner, and grow the faster. 

Mildew is another evil attending peas, especially such as 
are sown late in the season. This disorder is supposed by 
Knight to be caused by " a want of a sufficient supply of 
moisture from the soil, with excess of humidity in the air, 
particularly if the plants be exposed to a temperature below 
that to which they have been accustomed." The remedy 
w^iich he recommends is, to " give water rather profusely 
once a week, or nine days, even if the weather proves 
showery."— -See N, E. Farmer^ vol. i. p. 414. 

Use, — The use of peas for soups, and other culinary pur 
poses, is well known. They are likewise very serviceable 
in fattening hogs, for which purpose they should be har- 
vested dry, and ground into meal. If the strav/ be forv/ard 
in autumn, and has been harvested without injury, it will 
be little inferior to ordinary hay for feeding cattle. 

" In boiling split peas, some samples, without reference 
to variety, fall or moulder down freely into pulp, while 
others continue to maintain their form. The former are 
called hollers. This property of boiling depends on the 
soil : stiff land, or sandy land that has been limed or marled, 



232 



PEACH-TREE. 



uniformly produces peas that will not melt in boiling, no 
matter what the variety may be." — Loudon. 

" When peas are sown before wiiiier, or early in spring, 
they are very apt to be eaten by mice. To prevent this, 
soak the peas, for a day or two, in train oil, before you sow 
them, which will encourage their vegeiaiion, and render 
them so obnoxious to the mice that they will not eat 
them. " — Domestic Encyclopedia. 

FEACR-TREE.—Am7^,gdalus Persica.— The peach-tree 
is a native of Asia, and was first brought to Rome during 
the reign of the emperor Claudius. 

Varieties. — Linnaeus divides the A. Persicu into two 
varieties; that v/ith downy fruit, or the peach, and that 
with smooth fruit, or the nectarine. There are various in- 
stances on record, (Hort. Trans, vol, i. p. 103,) of both 
fruits growing on the same tree, even on the same branch ; 
and one case has occurred of a single fruit partaking of the 
nature of both. See further^ Fruit. 

All the varieties are continued by budding, and, as in all 
other cases, new^ ones are obtained by sowing the stones ; 
in doing which, we ought not to forget, that, like oil-giving 
seeds in general, those of the peach require to be earthed 
as soon as they are separated from the pulp. In their sec- 
ond year, (if wall-trees are required,) such of them as are 
destined for stems are budded close to the earth ; and if 
nders or standards are wanted, three, four, or six feet 
higher. In the spring following, the first shoots from 
these buds should be headed down to four, five, or six 
eyes, for the purpose of producing two upright and leading 
branches, and as many laterals, with w^hich you begin to 
give to the head the form you intend it shall ultimately 
take. 

" The standard is nearly the natural form of the tree ; 
requiring no interposition of art, if we except the removal 
of dead, or dying, or superfluous limbs, and an occasional 
supply of wood, (if this be wanted,) to keep up a well-bal- 
anced head. It is also that form in which the tree suc- 
ceeds best in hot climates ; and in such it ought always to 
be employed. But, in northern latitudes, (where the heat 
is neither long continued nor great,) the fruit of the stand- 
ard peach-tree is rarely seen in perfection ; it may be large, 
and juicy, and well coloured, but it will always be deficient 
in that peculiar flavour, that aroma, which is its true char- 
acteristic, and vrithout which it is but ordinary fruit. To 
supply, therefore, as far as may be possible, without the aid 



PEACH-TREE. 



233 



of fire or glass, that high temperature in which the peach 
delights, we must recur, first, to the use of walls, which, 
besides protecting the tree from high and cold winds, con- 
centrate the rays of the sun on its stem and branches, and 
on the earth which surrounds and nourishes its roots ; sec- 
ond, to the amelioration of the soil, by giving to it both 
warmth and dryness, should it be deficient in these quali- 
ties ; and, third, to the mode of training, which exposes to 
the light the greatest surface of leaf in the shortest space 
of time, and, consequently, best promotes an equal distribu- 
tion of the sap. For accomplishing these three objects, 
the rules are, to construct your walls of stone, or brick, or 
wood, and of a height from twelve to fifteen feet; to lay 
out on the eastern and southern sides a border ten feet 
wide, worked to the depth of three feet, and manured w^ith a 
mixture of ashes and peat, or bog earth ; to plant in this (two 
and a half feet distant from the wall) your young trees, 
furnished v*'ith two leading branches, and presenting a figure 
not unlike the letter Y ; to bring down those branches to a 
position nearly horizontal, and subsequently to train them 
upwards, parallel to each other, as high as the top of the 
wall, and directly against its side, to which, throughout 
their whole length, they are to be fastened by woollen 
straps ; and, lastly, to encourage side shoots from these 
leaders, so as to fill up with bearing wood the intermeditate 
space between them, and such exterior space on the wall 
as may be thought proper and practicable. To this form 
is given the technical name of the wavy or curvilineal fan; 
XTid it is obvious, that, in preserving, as well as producing 
it, the use of the knife cannot be dispensed with. Be care- 
ful, therefore, in May and June, and, occasionally, in the 
succeeding months, to remove water-shoots, and all ill- 
placed, redundant and diseased buds ; and, again, at the 
fall of the leaf, to cut away, with a sharp knife, and close 
to the branches on which they grow^, such new shoots as 
will not readily accommodate themselves to your design, or 
as may be unnecessary to it, and also all such old wood as 
may be useless or troublesome. 

" The general rules for thinning leaves and fruit must be 
carefully observed in the treatment of peach-trees and nec- 
tarines, as they are known to have an uncommon degree of 
proneness to overbearing, and as the discipline v»^e recom- 
mend will, besides giving an improved fruit, tend directly 
and greatly to fortify the trees against the attacks of their 
20* 



234 



PEACH-TREE. 



numerous enemies. Of these, the acarus, chermes^ aphu 
and thripsj (an insect hardly perceptible to the naked eye,) 
are the most common, and are best expelled by water and 
tobacco smoke. It is, however, the curcalio, or grub, (as 
we call it,) that may, from its pre-eminence in mischief, be 
regarded as the destroyer of the peach. Its attacks, ordi- 
narily, begin in the stem, near the surface of the earth ; 
and, if not arrested, will soon terminate in the roots, where 
it riots on the. gum exuding from the wounds it inflicts. 
The remedies resorted to in this case are, first, the appli- 
cation of boiling water to the roots ; second, a similar ap- 
plication of unslaked lime, in the proportion of one quart 
to a tree ; third, removing the surface earth, and substitut- 
ing for it tanners' bark ; fourth, removing the earth, as in 
the preceding case, in the month of November, and expos- 
ing the roots to the action of frost during the winter ; and, 
fifth, encircling the lower part of the stem with straw, and 
thus compelling the insect to begin his attack so far from 
the ground, that he wdll be unable to avail himself of its 
shelter before the coming on of winter. 

" The diseases of the peach-tree are as numerous, and 
often as fatal, as the depredators just mentioned ; and are 
known to horticulturists under the names of the honey-dew, 
mildew, canker, spots, &c. The first of these yields to the 
flour of sulphur, sprinkled over the tree ; but the most ef- 
ficient cure for all of them is the removal of the soil about 
their roots." — Armstrong's Treatise on Gardening, 

The following is from the Domestic Encyclopedia, last 
Philadelphia edition : — 

" Peach-trees are liable to three casualties : 

" 1. The fly that deposits eggs near the root, and there 
forms a Vv orm. 

" 2. The bursting of the bark by severe frosts in v/et 
winters. 

" 3. The splitting of the limbs at the fork of the tree. 

" The fly, which is blue, (but not a wasp,) begins its at- 
tacks about the middle of July, and continues its depreda- 
tions until the middle of September. It wounds the tender 
part of the bark, and generally at the surface of the ground, 
there depositing its eggs, which hatch into worms, that 
prey upon the mucilage and tender part of the bark, until 
the communication between the root and the branches is 
cut ofl*, causing the death of the tree. To guard against 
this, raise a little hillock in the month of June, round tht 



PEACH-TKEE. 



235 



tree, about a foot high, so as completely to cover that part 
of the bark kept moist and tender at the surface of the 
ground. This hillock will not stand so long at one height, 
as to tender the bark above, as the rain will gradually wash 
it down level with the surface ; and it must be raised again 
every summer. 

To take out the worm, the roots must be uncovered, 
ani the spot looked for where the gum oozes out, following 
the cavity round with the point of a knife, till you come to 
the solid wood, and lay the whole open : the worm will be 
found with a white body and black head ; which must be 
destroyed, and the holes carefully filled up with cow ma- 
nure, rendered adhesive by sand, or lime and ashes, as di- 
rected by Forsyth. 

" Soap-suds, heated after a family wash, and poured on 
the roots of trees about the middle of August, have been 
used with success in destroying the eggs or the young 
worm. 

" ' According to Mr. John Ellis, of New Jersey, the in- 
jury arising from the worm may be prevented in the follow- 
ing way : 

" In the spring, when the blossoms are out, clear away 
the dirt, so as to expose the root of the tree, to the depth of 
three inches ; surround the tree with straw about three feet 
long, applied lengthwise, so that it may have a covering 
one inch thick, which extends to the bottom of the hole, 
the but-ends of the straw resting on the ground at the 
bottom ; bind this straw round the tree with three bands, 
one near the top, one at the middle, and the third at the 
surface of the earth ; then fill up the hole at the root with 
earth, and press it closely round the straw. When the 
white frosts appear, the straw should be removed, and the 
tree remain uncovered, until the blossoms put out in the 
spring. 

" ' By this process, the lly is prevented from depositing its 
egg within three feet of the root ; and, although it may place 
the egg above that distance, the worm travels so slow that 
it cannot reach the ground before frost, and therefore is kill- 
ed before it is able to injure the tree. 

" ' The truth of the principle is proved by the follow- 
ing fact. I practised this method with a large number of 
peach-trees, and they flourished remarkably without any 
appearance of the worm for several years, when I was in- 
duced to discontinue the straw with about twenty of them. 
All those which were without the 8tmw have declined^ while 



236 



PEACH-TflEE. 



the others^ which have had the strawj continue as vigorous as 

" To guard against frost, plant the trees where the water 
will run off, and procure the sweetest and richest fruit, as 
the inferior qualities are more injured by the cold. 

" The splitting of the tree at the forks is guarded against 
by preserving as many upright branches as can be spared, 
by breaking olf, in bearing years, more than half the quan- 
tity of fruit while small, and by pruning almost the w hole 
of every branch beyond where the fruit is set, leaving only 
a few buds on each of the succeeding year's fruit. The 
size of the fruit is by these means rendered larger, more 
beautiful, and of a higher flavour, and the growth of the 
tree is rendered more vigorous. 

" Mr. Thomas Coulter, of Bedford county, Penn., asserts 
that ' The principal causes of peach-trees dying while 
young are the planting, transplanting and pruning the same 
stock ; which causes the stock to be open and tender, and 
the bark of the tree very rough : this roughness of the bark 
gives opportunities to insects to lodge and breed in it ; and 
birds search after these insects for their support, and vvith 
their sharp bills wound the stock in many places ; from 
which w^ound the sap of the tree is drawn out, which con- 
geals, and never fails to kill, or to render the tree useless in 
a few years. To prevent which, transplant your peach- 
trees, as young as possible, where you mean them to stand ; 
if in the kernel, so much the better ; because, in tliat case, 
there will be no check of growth, which always injures 
peach-trees.' Plant peach-trees sixteen feet apart, both 
ways, except you would wish to take your w agon through 
the orchard to carry the peaches away ; in that case give 
twenty-four feet distance to every fifth row, one way, after 
transplanting. You may plough and harrow amongst your 
peaches for tw^o years, paying no regard to wounding or 
tearing them, so that you do not take them up by the roots. 
In the month of March or April, in the third year after 
transplanting, cut them all off by the ground ; plough and 
harrow amongst them as before, taking special care not to 
wound or tear them in the smallest degree, letting all the 
sprouts grow, that will grow ; cut none aw^ay, supposing six 
or more should come up from the old stump ; the young 
scions v/ill grow up to bearing trees on account of the 

* Dr. Thacher observes, that " A band of matting", extending- about six inch- 
es above, and the same beneath the surface of the earth, may be found prelcra- 
blc to straw, as it is easier applied." 



PEACH-TREE. 



237 



roots being strong. Let no kind of beasts into a peach- 
orchard, hogs excepted^ for fear of wounding the trees ; as 
the least wound will greatly injure the tree, by draining 
away that substance which is the life thereof: although the 
tree may live many years, the produce is not so great ; nei- 
ther is the fruit so good. After the old stock is cut away, 
the third year after transplanting, the sprouts or scions will 
grow up all round the old stump, from four to six in num- 
ber ; no more will come to maturity than the old stump can 
support and nourish ; the remainder will die before ever 
they bear fruit. These may be cut away, taking care 
not to wound any part of any stock, or the bark. The 
sprouts growing all round the old stump, when loaded with 
fruit, will bend, and rest on the ground in every direction, 
without injuring any of them, for many years, all of them 
being rooted in the ground as though they had been planted. 
The stocks ./ill remain tough, and the bark smooth, for 
twenty years and upwards. If any of the sprouts or trees 
from the old stump should happen to splitofF, or die, cut them 
away ; they will be supplied from the ground by young 
trees, so that you will have trees from the same stump for 
one hundred years, as I believe. I now have trees, thirty- 
six, twenty, ten, five, and down to one year old, all from the 
same stump. The young trees, coming up, after any of the 
old trees split off or die, and are cut away, will bear fruit 
the second year : but this fruit will not ripen so easily as 
the fruit on the old trees from the same stem. Three 
years after the trees are cut off by the ground, they will be 
suinciently large and bushy to shade the ground, so as to 
prevent grass of any kind from matting or binding the sur- 
face so as to injure the trees; therefore ploughing is use- 
less, as well as injurious ; useless, because nothing can be 
raised in the orchard, by reason the trees will shade all the 
ground, or nearly so; injurious, because either the roots, 
stock, or branches will be wounded ; neither is it necessary 
ever to manure peach-trees, as manured trees will always 
produce less and worse fruit than trees that are not ma- 
nured ; although by manuring your peach-trees they will 
grow larger, and look greener and thicker in the boughs, 
and cause a thicker shade, yet on them will grow very little 
fruit, and that little will be of a very bad kind — generally 
looking as green as the leaves, even when ripe, and later 
than those that have never been manured."'^ 



* This assertion is directly contrary to the experience of a g-entleman in New 
Jersey, who has remarkably fine peaches, regularly manures his trees every 



238 



Professor Say, of Philadelphia, has given the following 
scientific description of the peach-insect : — 

" jEgeria exitiosa. — Male. — Body, steel blue : antenncej 
hairy on the inner side, black, with a tinge of blue : palpi 
beneath, and basal band of the head above and beneath, 
pale yellov/ : eyesy black brown : thorax, with two pale 
yellow longitudinal lines, and a transverse one behind, in- 
terrupted above ; a spot of the same colour beneath the ori- 
gin of the wings ; wingsj hyaline, nervures and margin steel 
blue, more dilated on the costal margin and anastomosing 
band of the superior wings : feet coxce, two bands on the 
tibia, including the spines : incisures of the posterior tarsi, 
and anterior tarsi behind, pale yellow : abdomen^ with two 
very narrow, pale yellow bands, of which one is near the 
base, and the other in the middle : fai7, fringed, the fringe 
margined with white each side. — Length, to the tip of 
the tail, more than three fourths of an inch. — Length, to the 
tip of the wings, one tenth of an inch shorter. 

Female. — Body, very dark steel blue, with a tinge of 
purple : palpi beneath, black : thorax, immaculate : injerior 
wingSy hyaline, with an opaque margin, and longitudinal 
Sine ; the latter, and the costal margin, are dilated : tergum^ 
with the fifth segment bright fulvous. — Length, seven 
tenths of an inch. 

" The PUPA has two semifaciae of spines upon each of the 
segments, excepting the three terminal ones, which have a 
single row only. 

" The FOLLICLE is brown, oblong-oval, and is composed 
of small pieces of bark and earth, closely connected together 
by the web of the animal. 

" The very great disparity of markings between the sexes 
of this destructive species, would lead us to hesitate in ad- 
mitting their identity, if we were not aware that, in this 
genus, the males and females, in several instances, dilfer 
exceedingly from each other. In the present instance, this 
diiference is so great as to render it difficult to construct a 
specific character which shall distinguish them from all 
others of the genus. After a careful examination of ento- 
mological works, I have not been able to find any notice 
whatever of this species. I therefore describe it as new.'' 
— Journal oj the Academy of Sciences. 

year, and asserts that the speedy decay of common peach-trees is owing- chiefly 
to a neglect of the practice. He even said experience convinced him it waa 
owing to the same circumstance that peach-stones did not, in general, produce 
fruit like the original tree. 



PEACH-TREE. 



239 



Dr. Thacideus W. Harris has written a paper on this in- 
sect, which was published in the N. E, Farmer^ vol. v. 

33, and observes, that One of the lirst writers who de- 
scribed the peach-tree insect was the late Dr. Benjamin 
Smith Barton, the celebrated botanist, and professor of nat- 
ural history in the university of Pennsylvania. In his me- 
moirs on various destructive insects, which obtained the 
Magellanic premium, in 1806, from the Philosophical So- 
ciety of Philadelphia, this insect is called Zygczna Persicce,'^'^ 
Dr. Harris also observes, "he" (Dr. Barton) "having first 
described this insect, the name which he has imposed has 
the priority, and must be retained." 

" This insect," continues Dr. Harris, " I first obtained in 
the perfect state in July, 1823, and sent a description of it to 
Hon. John Lowell. It is a remarkable coincidence, that the 
name which I then gave it is the same as that given by Dr. 
Barton, although I was then unacquainted with his account ' 
of it. I also obtained a specimen of the male from an excres- 
cence on the trunk of a cherry-tree, and have frequently 
observed the larvae in those tubercles which deform the 
limbs of that tree. 

" The females deposit their eggs, in the month of August, 
on the trunk of the peach-tree, near the root; the eggs are 
soon hatched, and the larvae immediately penetrate beneath 
the bark. Some eggs are laid as late as the last of 
September. 

" The precautions which I v/ould recommend are, to re- 
move the earth around the roots, carefully to search it and 
the trees for any cocoons or larvae which may exist there, 
which should be crushed or burned. This operation should 
be commenced early in this month [August] Then cover the 
trunk with the common composition, or wash and surround 
it with coarse paper, such as is used for sheathing, and 
which is manufactured from junk, or old cordage. This is 
to be properly secured by strings of Canton matting, and 
should extend two or three inches below the surface of the 
ground, and six or seven inches above it. Mortar may 
now be placed roimd the roots, so as to confine the paper, 
and prevent access beneath it, and the remaining cavity 
filled with fresh loam. The strings may be removed after 
the winter commences ; in the spring the tree should again 
be searched for any of the larvae, which may have escaped 
ttt first, and the application of the composition and loam be 
renewed. 

" In getting out the caterpillar, we should be sparing in 



240 



PEACK-TREE. 



the use of the knife ; a piece of wire will often answer the 
purpose quite as well, and does not wound the bark." 

Mr. Wilson, of New York, in his Economy of the Kitchen 
Garden^ Sic.j a valuable work, lately published, says, 
" Grafting-clay, applied to the bark of trees, does not injure 
the circulation, and, if the stems of peach-trees were en- 
veloped with a thin coat of it, I am persuaded no worm 
could hurt them. If properly prepared and applied, it ad- 
heres to the stem, or any other part of a tree, with great 
tenacity, until expanded and broken by the frosts and thaws 
of winter. It is made in the following manner : — -Take 
three parts of any kind of clay, free from stones, the stiffer 
the better, one part of horse-dung, free from straws, and 
one part of fresh, but not thin, cow-dung ; mix and incor- 
porate the whole well together, adding a sufficient quantity 
of water to render it of a consistency of good, stiff mortar ; 
beat and work it thoroughly with the spade, till it becomes 
as smooth and tough as putty. It will then be fit for ap- 
plying round the stem of your tree, and should be neatly 
clapped on it by the hands." 

The same writer attributes the degeneracy of peach-trees, 
so far as it is real, to th/e cultivation of old sorts, and ob- 
serves, that " Budding or grafting from old trees, upon new 
^stocks, raised from seed, although it is the means of afford- 
ing a fresh supply of vigorous nourishment to the scion of 
the old sort, which is to form a new tree, is still only a new 
mode of the continuation of the same individual and 
?idvises, in substance, either to bud or graft from new^ sorts, 
on seedling stocks, or to raise young trees from seedlings, 
produced from seeds of healthy, young, or middle-aged 
trees, which are not of a worn-out variety. 

Mr. Wilson, moreover, observes, Great mischief is fre^ 
quently done by cutting off the tops of peach-trees, when 
they are first set out. If they are furnished with good 
heads, as they always ought to be, before they are taken 
from the nursery, no other pruning should be given them at 
setting out, except the moderate retrenching of any very 
irregular shoots, and this should be done at the time the 
buds begin to expand ; and the chief pruning they require 
afterwards is, to keep their heads moderately open by cutr 
ting out such branches as crowd upon or interfere with 
each other." 

Mode of bearing, — " All the varieties of the peach and 
nectarine bear the fruit upon the young wood of a year old ; 
fag blossom buds rising immediately from the eyes of the 



PEAR-TRESf. 



24J 



shoots. The same shoot seldom bears after the first yeu*, 
except on some casual, small spurs, on the two years' wood, 
which is not to be counted upon. Hence the trees are to 
be pruned, as bearing entirely on the shoots of the preced- 
ing year ; and a full supply of every year's shoots must be 
trained in for successional bearers. 

Thinning the fruit, — " In favourable seasons, the blos- 
soms often set more fruit than they can support, or than 
have room to attain full growth ; and if all were to remain, 
it would hurt the trees in their future bearing ; therefore 
they should be timely thinned, when of the size of large 
peas, or half-grown gooseberries. There should be a pre- 
paratory thinning at the time of stoning, and a final thin- 
ning afterwards, because most plants, especially such as 
have overborne themselves, drop many fruit at that crisis. 
Finish the thinning with great regularity, leaving those re- 
tained at proper distances, three, four, or five, on strong 
shoots, two or three on middling, and one or two on the 
weaker shoots ; and never leaving more than one peach at 
the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees thin more in 
proportion." — Abercrombie. 

Use. — The use of the peach, as a dessert-fruit of the first 
order, is too well known to require observation. In seve- 
ral of the Southern States, a sort of brandy is made from this 
fruit. This liquor, hov/ever, though highly flavoured, is 
said to be unwholesome. 

The following mode of drying peaches has been 
practised by Thomas Belangee, of Egg Harbour, Hew 
Jersey : — 

He has a small house, with a stove in it, and drawers in 
the sides of the house, lathed at their bottoms. Each 
drawer will hold nearly half a bushel of peaches, which 
should be ripe, and not peeled, but cut in two, and laid on 
the laths, with their skins downwards, so as to save the 
juice. On shoving the drawer in, they are soon dried by 
the hot air of the stove, and laid up. Peaches, thus dried, 
eat like raisins. With a paring-machine, which may be 
had for a dollar or two, apples or pears may be pared, and 
a sufficient quantity dried, to keep a family in pies, and 
apple-bread and milk, till apples come again. With a par- 
ing machine, one person can pare for five or six cutters. 

PEAR-TREE. — Pyrus communis, — The pear-tree is 
found in a wild state in Europe as far north as latitude 51°. 
It grows in almost any soil, and seems to be quite at home 
h New England. In a dry soil (according to Loudon) it 
21 



542 



will exist for centuries, and still keep in health, productive- 
ness and vigour. 

Propagation, — " The pear may be propagated by layers or 
suckers^ but not easily by cuttings. These modes, however, 
are productive of very indifferent plants, and are justly reject- 
ed in favour of raising from seed, and grafting or budding. 

From seed, — This mode is adopted either for the purpose 
of obtaining new varieties, or for producing pear-stocks. 
The manner of procuring seedlings is the same as directed 
for the apple-tree, page 17. Professor Van Mons, pro- 
prietor of the Pepiniere de la Fidelite^ at Brussels, has up 
wards of eight hundred approved sorts of new pears, raised 
from seed by himself, and M. Duquesne, of Mons, in the 
course of fifteen or sixteen years, and selected from prob- 
ably eight thousand new seedling fruits. Van Mons ob- 
served to Neill, that he seldom failed in procuring 
valuable apples from the seed ; for those which were not 
adapted to the garden as dessert-fruit, were probably suited 
for the orchard, and fit for baking, or cider making. With 
pears the case was different, many proving so bad as to be 
unfit for any purpose. — Horticul, Jour,^ Sic, 309. When- 
ever a seedling indicates, by the blunt shape, thickness, 
and woolliness of its leaves, or by the softness of its bark 
and fulness of its buds, the promise of future good qual- 
ities as a fruit-bearing tree, Van Mons takes a graft from 
it, and places it on a well established stock : the value of 
its fruit is thus much sooner ascertained. — Horticul, Jour.y 
&c. 310. At Brussels, seedlings yield fruit in four or five 
years ; in Britain, seldom before seven or ten years have 
elapsed. The fruit of the first year of bearing is always 
inferior to that of the second and third years. If a pear or 
an apple possess a white and heavy pulp, with juice of 
rather pungent acidity, it may be expected in the second, 
third, and subsequent years, greatly to improve in size and 
flavour. New varieties of pears, and indeed of all fruits, 
are more likely to be obtained from the seeds of new than of 
old sorts. — Horticul. Jour.^ &c. 308, 309. 

" As the varieties of the pear do not reproduce them- 
selves from the seed ; as the plants furnished by layers, cut- 
tings, and suckers, are very indifferent ; and as seedlings are 
slow in giving their fruit; it follows, that the pear is prin- 
cipally propagated by scions and buds. These are placed 
on pear or quince stocks, according as taste or interest may 
invite to early and small crops of fine quality, or to later 
and morCf abundant ones of inferior character. In the for- 



PEAR-TREE. 



243 



mer case, the stem of the quince must be employed ; and 
in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any 
material difference in the operation, excepting that ' the 
feebler the stem, the nearer to the earth should be placed 
the scion or the bud.' 

" Notwithstanding the hardiness ascribed to the pear- 
tree, we know not any of the kernel class more readily or 
sensibly affected than it by particular conditions of the at- 
mosphere. A moist and cold spring, a wet summer, and 
a rainy autumn, are alike unpropitious to it. In either of 
these cases, the fruit which does not rot is w^atery and 
tasteless ; and when all take place, the evil extends to even 
a second year; as, according to the observations of Cour- 
sette, ' long continued moisture rarely fails to convert fruit 
buds into wood buds.' 

" The second year after budding or grafting, the plants 
may be removed to the places where it is intended they 
shall stand ; and as the manner and time of doing this do 
not differ from those prescribed for the apple-tree, we may 
spare ourselves and our readers the trouble of a repetition 
of our directions on those heads. 

With respect to exposition and soil, though the pear- 
tree may be made to grow any where, still it will succeed 
badly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry soils, and still 
worse on those which rest on a wet sub-soil. Some of its 
later and finer varieties require and deserve a deep substan- 
tial loam, occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well rotted 
dung, and some of the best aspects the garden can furnish. 

" Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees 
should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their ov/n 
shape,^ and if interference become proper at all, it should 
be conducted — 'to keep the middle of the head pretty 
open, and the sides well balanced. '| Trees of other forms, 
and intended for walls and espaliers, require more labour 
and management, and a degree of both summer and winter 
pruning : the former of which consists in rubbing off all 
fore-right, ill placed, superfluous, or spongy shoots, before 
they become so hard as to render the use of the knife 
necessary ; while the latter (performed during any tem- 
perate weather between November and April) is con- 



* Knight remarks, that, in general, very little pruning- is required for pear- 
standards or p\Tamids ; but that there are sorts which form heads resembling 
those of apple-trees, and that for these pruning- may be beneficial. 

t To produce a well balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, 
and ieave the other to itself. 



244 



PEAR-TREE. 



ducted on the general rule ' of sparing all such "well 
placed and thriving laterals^ as may be necessary for pre- 
serving the form given to the head of the tree, and of cut- 
ting away all others close to the branch from which they 
grow.' If the older wood be diseased or redundant, cut 
this away also, or shorten it down to some healthy and 
promising shoots. The retained branches, if growing 
against a wail or trellis, should, after each pruning, be laid 
down and nailed, with as much extension as can conve- 
niently be given to them. 

Mr. Knight's mode of training the pear-tree is, to 
leave on the young stock two lateral branches on each side. 
When about six feet high, he transplants the tree early in 
the spring, and inserts grafts on each side of the laterals, 
so that two of them shall push from the stem about four 
feet from the ground, and two others from the summit, the 
ensuing year. The shoots produced by these grafts, when 
about a foot long, are to be trained downward — the lower 
ones almost perpcLidicularly, and the upper ones just below a 
horizontal line ; and so placed, as to distance, that the leaves 
of the one will not at all shade the other. Continue this 
mode of training the second year, and in the third you may 
expect an abundant crop of fruit. 

" When an old tree becomes unproductive, one of two 
methods should be adopted — either to cut down within 
eighteen inches or two feet from the ground, and train up 
anew some selected shoots which may have pushed from 
the stump, (which is the method of Forsyth,) or, to 
take off at its base every branch which does not want at 
least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs 
from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into 
these, (the retained branches,) at their subdivisions, and at 
different distances from their bases, quite to their extremi- 
ties, grafts must be carefully inserted ; which, when they at- 
tain sufficient length, (say twelve inches,) must be trained 
downward between the branches, as directed in the pre- 
ceding paragraph. " — Armstrong, 

The diseases of the pear-tree, and the insects which 
infest it, are in general the same with those to which ap- 
ple-trees are liable. Soft soap is said to be an excellent 
application to the stem and limbs, preventing tlie decline 
of the tree, and causing the bark to become smooth and 
glossy. A solution of potash, as recommended for the apple- 
tree, (page 222.) would no doubt prove equally useful to this 
tree. Pear-trees have of late years been subject to a maladv. 



PEAR-TREE. 



245 



by some supposed to be fire-blight, but by others attributed 
to an insect called Scolytus pyri. During the months of June 
and July, the extreme branches turn black, as if scorched* 
The disorder extends downwards to the larger limbs, and 
continues to increase, till, in some instances, the tree is en- 
tirely destroyed. It is sometimes so rapid in its progress, 
that, in a few hours from its first appearance, the whole tree 
will appear to be mortally diseased, and all its foliage withered 
or withering. A writer in the New England Farmer^ vol. 
ii. p. 42, says, that, on the first appearance, of this disease, 
" I instantly sawed off all the limbs affected, and proceeded 
to examine them. I found at last the enemy, not at the 
point vTbere death ensued, but some inches below it. The 
insect was very small, and apparently incapable of such ex- 
tensive mischief, but the effect was certain, and the manner 
of producing that effect was obvious. It had eaten a com- 
plete circle of the alburnum, or sap wood, not exceeding the 
size of a knitting needle, so as completely to intercept the 
passage of the sap." This insect die wTiter exhibited to 
Professor Peck, whence arose his account of it, first pub- 
lished in the Mass, Agr, Repos.^ and republished, together 
with a cut of the insect, in the N. E. Farmer^ vol. v. p. 
2. The late Professor Peck observed, that the mischievous 
effects of this minute insect may be observed in June and 
July, and that the dead part of the branches should be cut 
off', and burnt without delay. The writer above referred 
to says, that, by steadily pursuing the system of cutting off" 
the limbs many inches below the apparent injury, and burn- 
ing them, the insects have been extirpated from his estate. 

Some writers attribute the sudden decay of the pear- 
tree to the overpowering rays of the sun. Others say that 
a warm winter sets the sap in motion, which a cold spring 
arrests, and causes it to stagnate and become corrupt in the 
pores of the alburnum. Others are of opinion that manur- 
ing too high, and pruning too much, causes the tree to die 
of a plethora or surfeit. The remedy, however, is not a 
subject of so much dispute. In all cases of blight, the 
only cure or palliation of the disorder is found in sawing off 
the affected branches, some inches below where the blight 
appears. 

Use. — " As a dessert fruit the pear is much esteemed, 
and generally preferred to the apple. It is also used for 
baking, compotes, marmalade, &c. Pared and dried in the 
oven, the fruit will keep several years, either with, or with- 
out sugar. This mode of preparing the pear is about as 
21* 



246 



PEPPER, RED. PLUM-TREE. 



common in France, as the making of apple-pies is in Britain, 
and what is favourable to the practice is, that bad eating 
sorts answer best for drying. The wood of the pear-tree is 
light, smooth, and compact, and is used by turners, and to 
make joiners' tools, picture-frames to be dyed black, &c. 
The leaves will produce a yellow dye, and may be used to 
give a green to blue cloth." — Loudon. 

PEPPER, RED. — Capsicum, — This plant requires a 
warm, rich soil, and a favourable exposition. The seeds 
may be placed in rows, three feet apart, or in hills, at that 
distance from each other. In dry weather they will need 
watering, and should be kept clear of weeds by frequent 
hoeing. The seeds are best preserved by running a string 
through the pods, and hanging them in a dry place. 

Use, — " Pepper is an excellent spice, which should 
always be coarsely ground, and eaten only with fat, smoked, 
or tough animal food ; with cabbages, cucumbers, and other 
flatulent and cold vegetables ; and likewise with fish, and 
all substances that are difficult to be digested. On the 
continent of Europe, this spice is highly esteemed for its 
efficacy in 'relieving flatulency, weak, or impaired digestion, 
and the giddiness which generally accompanies the com- 
plaint last mentioned. For this purpose, from six to ten 
grains are directed to be swallowed every morning, previ- 
ously to taking food ; such practice, however, ought to be 
adopted only in cases where the stomach is in a high de- 
gree vitiated, or the patient has been habituated to the free 
use of spices and spirituous liquors." — Dom, Encyc. 

PLUM-TREE. — Primus domestica,—Th.is tree is found 
growing wild in Great Britain and other parts of Europe ; 
but its native country is supposed, by European writers, to 
be Syria, in Asia. It is also indigenous in North America, 
and a wild kind, found in the woods of Vermont, grows 
large and fair, but its fruit contains little saccharine matter. 
No doubt it might be improved by culture, and may fur- 
nish stocks for grafting. Some of the most approved varie- 
ties are enumerated under the head Fruit, p. 136. 

Soil and cuUivatian. — Plums, according to Miller, should 
have a middling soil, neither too wet and heavy, nor over 
light and dry. Armstrong recommends argillaceous soils, 
not very wet nor very dry. " Where, from previous cul- 
ture, or accidental causes, tlie earth becomes either very 
rich or very poor, the tree does not succeed. In the one 
case, its vigour is directed only to the production of wood 
and foliage ; and in the other, its grov/th is feeble, and its 



PLirM-TREE. 



247 



life shox't. In favourable climates, it should always be cul- 
tivated as a standard, and will then require only a little an- 
nual labour about the roots, and the removal from the head 
of dead or dying branches ; but, in noithern latitudes, 
and cold situations, the espalier form, (as practised near 
Paris,) may be not only useful, but indispensable. This 
differs in nothing from the ordinary mode, but in pruning 
less severely. The cultivators at Montreuil, instead of 
shortening the branches to three or four eyes, leave them 
fifteen or twenty feet long, and lay them down in such a 
way as shall soonest and most completely enable them to 
cover the frame to which they are attached. 

" With regard to product, ^ few and^we' is the general 
maxim. The thinning discipline must not, therefore, be 
omitted ; because it is that which will best fulfil both parts 
of the rule."" 

Diseases, — The gum and canker are the diseases most 
common to plum-trees, for which, heading down is pre- 
scribed as the best remedy. Plum-trees are also annoyed 
by an insect, described, by Professor Peck, in the Mass. 
Agr. Repository for 1819, and by him denominated Ryn-- 
chcenus cerasi. The insect causes tumors, or irregular, 
black lumps, which deform the bark, and occasion the pre- 
mature fall, not only of plums, but peaches and apricots. 
" The evil," according to Professor Peck, produced by this 
insect, cannot be wholly remedied ; but something may be 
done to diminish the mischief, by cutting off the diseased 
branches." They should, according to his directions, be 
cut oii' the last half of June, and burnt immediately. 

Mr. R. Toohey, gardener, of Waltham, Mass., recom- 
mends the following composition for destroying insects, 
which infest plum-trees : — 

" Take of tobacco-juice one gallon'; this may be had of 
the tobacconists, or you may make it, by putting some to- 
bacco in warm water, (not boiling, as that will take off a 
great part of the oil;) oil of tar, one quart; train oil, one 
quart; soft soap, one and a half pound; and a quarter of a 
pound of soot. Beat the oils together first, and then the 
soap and soot, till well united; then pour them all into the 
tobacco-juice, stirring them gently together. When the 
liquid is cold, it is fit for use. It should be applied with a 
common paint-brush, in the latter end of March, or first of 
April. 

" Previous to applying the mixture, I should recommena 
pruning, and, when the trees are very much affected with 



^48 



POTATO. 



the above-mentioned disease, heading down at «, c, cf, 
or /, according to the size of the tr^s ; if any of the ulcers 
should remain after pruning or heading down, they must be 
entirely removed from the tree, and then apply the compo- 
sition." — N, E, Fanner^ vol. vi. p. 274. 

POTATO.— Sir Joseph Banks {HorL Trans, i. 8) consid- 
ers that the potato was first brought to Spain from the moun- 
tainous parts of South America, in the neighbourhood of 
Quito. To England, however, this root found its way by 
a diflferent route, being brought from Virginia by the colo- 
nists sent out by Sir Waiter Raleigh, in 1586. 

Varieties, — These are very numerous, not only from the 
facility of procuring new sorts by raising them from seed, 
but because any variety cultivated for a few years, in the 
same soil and situation, as in the same garden or farm, ac- 
quires a peculiarity of character and habit, which distin- 
guishes it from the same variety in a different soil and situ- 
ation. Dr. Hunter, in his Georgical Essays, has supposed 
the duration of a variety is limited to fourteen years ; and 
Knight concurs with him in opinion. Potatoes, which are 
excellent in Ireland, Nova Scotia, and other high northern 
latitudes, do not answer a good purpose in New England. 
The potato taken from the south prospers better, such as the 
River Plate, or long red potato, which has succeeded well in 
Massachusetts. Loudon asserts, that the best mode to or- 
der potatoes for seed is, to give a general description of 
the size, colour, form, and quality wanted, and whether for 
an early or late crop, without being guided by the names 
attached to any varieties. 

Propagation, — The potato may be propagated from seed, 
cuttings, or layers of the green shoots, sprouts from the eyes 
of the tubers, [roots,] or portions of the tubers containing a 
bud or eye, or by planting the tubers whole. The object 
of the first method is to procure a new or improved varie- 
ty ; of the second, little more than curiosity, or to multiply, 
as quickly as possible, a rare sort ; and of the third, to save 
the tubers for food. The methods, hy portions of the 
tubers, [the roots cut in pieces,] or whole potatoes, are the 
best, and almost universally practised, for the general pur- 
poses both of field and garden culture. 

By seed. — " Take the apples, in the beginning of Octo- 
ber, [or whenever they are ripe,] before the frost has hurt 
them ; hang them up by the foot stalks, in a dry closet, 
where they will not freeze ; let them hang till March, or 
April ; then mash the apples, wash the seeds from the pulp. 



POTATO. 



249 



and dry them in a sunny window. Sow the seeds in a 
bed about the first of May. When the plants are four or 
five inches high, transplant them into ground well pre- 
pared, one or two plants in a hill." — Deane, Seeds from 
the same ball will produce a great variety of kinds, some 
of which may be of little value ; and in order to make the 
most of such experiments, it will be well to proceed accord- 
ing to the following directions, extracted from some re- 
marks by Col. Pickering, contained in a pamphlet published 
by the Essex Agricultural Society, Mass. ; this society having 
awarded premiums for the best potatoes raised from the 
seed. 

1. Seeing the seeds in the same bail will produce vari- 
ous sorts of potatoes, it will be indispensably necessary, 
that each young plant grows at the distance of eight or ten 
inches apart. 

2. " In autumn, or as soon as the vines or stems of the 
plants die, and the young potatoes are dug up, those of 
each plant are to be saved by themselves, and it will be 
easy to put each sort in a separate paper bag. Those pota- 
toes will be very small, perhaps from the size of a pigeon's 
down to a sparrow's egg. 

3. " In the ensuing spring, the potatoes of each sort, that 
is, the potatoes of each bag, must be planted by themselves ; 
and, if not in distinct rov/s, then stakes, driven into the 
ground, should mark the divisions of the several sorts in 
the same rows, leaving a space of about two feet between 
one sort and another, to guard against any mixture. 

4. " In the time for harvesting them in the second year, 
the potatoes [if grown in a good soil] will be large enough 
to be boiled, to ascertain their quality. Each sort must be 
tried by itself. Such as are w^atery, and ill flavoured, may 
be at once throvrn aside, for the use of live stock. Every 
other sort, so valuable as to be thought worth cultivating, 
must be kept unmixed, by putting each kind in a separate 
bag or cask.'' — N. E. Farmer^ vol. vi. p. 286. 

The modes of propagating by layers, cuttings of the vines, 
suckers, sprouts, &c., are rather curious than useful, and are 
therefore here omitted, but may be seen in detail in the 
Encyc. of Gard. p. 620. 

By portions of the tubers^ [or cuttings of the roots.] — In 
making the sets or sections, reject the extreme or watery 
end of the tuber, as apt to run too much to haulm, [vine,] 
and having the eyes small, and in a cluster; reject also the 
root, or dry end, as more likely to be tardy in growth, and 



9S0 



FOTATO, 



produce the curl. Then divide the middle of the potato, 
so as to have not more than one good eye in each set 
When the potato-scoop [an instrument for digging out the 
eyes of potatoes] is used, take care to apply it so as the eye 
or bud may be in the centre of each set, which this instru- 
ment produces, of a semi-globular form. The larger the 
portion of tuber left to each eye, so much the greater will 
be the progress of the young plants." — Loudon, 

By some experiments which were made by J. Whitlaw, 
Esq., and given in detail in the N. E, Farmer j vol. i. p. 53, 
and vol. iv. p. 314, these two important facts were made 
apparent : 1st. Large potatoes are much better for seed than 
small ones. 2d. It is best to cut off the but and top-ends 
from each potato, and cut the middle pieces into quarters, 
before planting. Knight, the famous English horticulturist, 
has found, that, for a late crop, small sets [seed potatoes] 
may be used ; because the plants of the late varieties al- 
ways acquire considerable age before they begin to gene- 
rate tubers ; but for an early crop, he recommends the 
largest tubers ; and he has found, that these not only aiTord 
very strong plants, but also such as readily recover when 
injured by frost ; for, being fed by a copious reservoir be- 
neath the soil, a re-production of vigorous stems and foliage 
soon takes place, when those first produced are destroyed 
by frost or other cause. He adds, " When the planter is 
anxious to obtain a crop within the least possible time, he 
will find the position, in which the tubers are placed to 
vegetate, by no means a point of indifi'erence ; for these, 
being shoots or branches which have grown thick instead 
of elongating, retain the disposition of branches to propel 
the sap to their leading buds, or points most distant from 
the stems of the plants of which they once formed parts. 
If the tubers be placed with their leading buds upwards, a 
few very strong and very early shoots will spring from 
them ; but if their position be reversed, many weaker and 
later shoots wdll be produced ; and not only the earliness, 
but the quality of the produce, in size, will be much af- 
fected." — Hort, Trans, iv. p. 448. 

M'Mahon advises to cut seed potatoes " a week before 
planting, in order that the wounds should have time to 
form a dry crust; for, if planted immediately after being cut, 
they imbibe too much moisture, many of them rot, and the 
rest are greatly weakened thereby." Some advise to wet 
seed potatoes, and roll them in pulverized plaster of Paris, 
immediately before planting. 



POTATO. 



351 



From an experiment made by a person in the employ of 
the Hon, Josiah Quincy, the particulars of which are given in 
jSfass. Agr, Repos, vol. v. p. 64, it appears that the product 
of certain rows, planted with whole potatoes, exceeded an 
equal extent of adjoining rows more than one third, A 
writer for the N. E, Farmer^ vol. i. p. 330, gives an experi- 
ment, which tends to the conclusion that potatoes planted 
whole produce more than those which are cut. The ex- 
periments of most cultivators, however, are in favour of cut- 
ting. Dr. Cooper, in the last Philadelphia edition of WiU 
lich^s Domestic Encyclopedia^ says, " The best mode [with 
regard to seed potatoes] appears to be this : — choose your 
potatoes for planting of a moderate size, rather large than 
small, for there is no good reason to be assigned for breed- 
ing from diminutive parents ; cut your potatoes into sets, 
two eyes to a set ; throw away, without hesitation, into the 
hog-trough, all the inferior and diminutive eyes, choosing 
your sets from the middle of the potato ; do not cut the po- 
tato down the middle." Loudon observes, " In preparing 
the sets of potatoes, some cultivators recommend large sets, 
others, small potatoes entire. Others, on the ground of 
experience, are equally strenuous in support of small cut- 
tings, sprouts, shoots, or even only the eyes or buds. With 
all these different sorts of sets, good crops are stated to 
have been raised, though tolerable-sized cuttings of pretty 
large potatoes, with two or three good eyes or buds in each, 
are probably to be preferred. A very slight exercise of 
common sense might have saved the advocates of shoots, 
scooped-out eyes, &c., their experiments and arguments, it 
being evident, as Brown has observed, to every one that 
has any practical knowledge of the nature of vegetables, 
that the strength of the stem in the outset depends, in di- 
rect , proportion, upon the vigour and power of the set. 
The set, therefore, ought to be large, rarely smaller than 
the fourth part of the potato ; and, if the root is of small 
size, one half of the potato may be profitably used. At all 
events, rather err in giving over-large sets, than in making 
them too small ; because, by the first error, no great loss 
can be sustained ; whereas, by the other, a feeble and late 
crop may be the consequence." Deane says, " The shoot- 
ing parts exist, in a potato, in the form of a tree, of which 
the stock is at the but or root-end. I therefore take care 
to cut athwart those parts as little as possible : though they 
will grow any way, the greater length of shooting stem 



252 



POTATO. 



there is in a set, the more strong and vigorous will be its 
growth at first." 

Quantity of sets, — Abercrombie directs, for a plot of the 
early and secondary crops , eight feet wide by sixteen in 
length, planted in rows, fifteen inches asunder by nine 
inches in the row, a quarter of a peck of roots or cuttings. 
For full-timed and main crops^ a compartment, twelve feet 
wide by thirty-two in length, planted in rows, two feet dis- 
tant, half a peck. For field cultivatioUj English writers say 
that it requires twenty bushels and a half to plant an acre 
with cut potatoes ; and thirty-seven bushels and a quarter 
of whole potatoes. 

Soil. — " The soil," says Loudon, " in which the potato 
thrives best, is a light loam, neither too dry nor too moist, 
but if rich, so much the better. — They may, however, be 
grown well on many other sorts of land, especially those of 
the mossy, moory, and other similar kinds, where they are 
free from stagnant moisture. The best flavoured potatoes 
are almost always produced from a newly broken-up pas- 
ture-ground, not manured ; or from any new soil, as the 
site of a grubbed-up copse or hedge, or the site of old 
buildings or roads. The best climate for the potato is one 
rather moist than dry, and temperate or cool rather than 
hot. Hence the excellence of the Irish potatoes, which 
grow in a dry, loamy, calcareous soil, and moist and tem- 
perate climate ; and hence, also, the inferiority of the pota- 
toes of France, Spain, Italy, and even Germany. In short, 
the potato is grown no where in the w^orld to the same de- 
gree of perfection as in Ireland and Lancashire, and not 
even in the south of England, so well as in Scotland and 
the north and western counties; all which is, in our opin- 
ion, clearly attributable to the climate." 

Although a light loam is a proper soil for the potato in a 
cool and moist climate, a strong and heavy loam is most suit- 
able for the same root in a dry and hot climate. In a paper 
read before the New York Horticultural Society, in 1823, by 
Wm. Wilson, an experienced horticulturist, are the following 
remarks on this subject : — " Those soils which prove the very 
bane of the potato here [in the United States] are just such 
as prove the most congenial for them in Britain. And so, 
on the contrary, the best soils, by far, for producing the 
driest and best flavoured potatoes here, and altogether the 
most abundant crops, are those of a strong, heavy loam.'- 
These assertions are corroborated by a number of experi 



POTATO, 



253 



ments, mentioned in the paper from which they are ex- 
tracted. Mr. Buel, of Albany, likewise asserts, that " the 
best potatoes are grown upon cold, moist, but porous and 
rich soils." — Am, Farmer ^ vol. ix. p. 409. 

Methods of planting, — These are various. If the land is 
rough, hard, or stony, the common mode of planting in 
hills is, perhaps, the most expedient. But, if it be some- 
what mellow, drills are to be preferred. Dr. Cooper says, 
"If your soil is stiff and wet, plough it in ridges; if sandy 
and dry, plough it flat. Plough it deep. Plant your sets 
in drills marked out by the plough or the hoe. The plants 
should be dibbled in, six inches deep, on long dung, scat- 
tered not sparingly along the drills, then covered v/ith 
about four inches of mould. 

The drills should be in threes - one foot apart ; 

the plants should be eight inches apart, with an interval, on 
each side of each set of three drills, of two feet, which will 
udmit of horse-hoeing between the sets of drills, and of 
hand-weeding between each drill. 



To have a good crop, you must not spare dung, or spare 
labour in weeding. Some persons prefer sets of four oi 
five drills, instead of three ; or, where horse-hoeing is noc 
convenient, the interv?tls may be reduced to one foot be- 
tween each set of drills, for the convenience of hand-weed- 
ing ; but, upon the vvdiole, the method here first proposed is 
as good as any. Forty loads of dung per acre will pay bet- 
ter than a less quantity. 

" If small potatoes are wanted for feeding, the sets may be 
at six inches apart, and the rows at nine inches ; but the 
method first here proposed admits, what is essential, accu- 
rate weeding, and sufficient air to circulate between the 
plants." 

Deane says, the sets may be either in single rows, three 
feet, or double, one foot apart, and from seven to nine inches 
asunder in the rows. 

" An expeditious way of planting potatoes is as follows ^ 
After the ground is prepared, by ploughing and harrowing^ 
cut furrows^ with the horse-plough, forty inches apart; drop 
the sets in the furrows ; then pass the plough along the 
back of each furrow, which will throw the earth of both 
furrows upon the sets ; and afterwaixls level the ground 
22 



254 



POTATO* 



With the back of the harrow^ or with a harrow that has 
short tines ; but it is of no great consequence whether it be 
levelled at all. Another method of planting is, to plough 
the ground plain, keeping the furrows straight and regular, 
and drop sets in every third or fourth furrow. But, before 
this is done, the ground should be ploughed and made level 
and fine with the harrow." 

A writer for the N, E. Farmer ^ vol. ii. p. 331, gives the 
following as "an easy and cheap method of raising potatoes : 
On an even and smooth piece of mowing, or pasture land, 
make deep, single furrows, with a plough, at three feet dis- 
tance. Fill these furrows with rye [or any other] straw, 
and drop your potatoes six or eight inches apart, on the 
straw. Then, with a hoe, cover the potatoes by turning 
down the ploughed furrows upon them. They will require 
no more attention till they are grown. No hoeing will be 
necessary. The same land may be improved as a pasture 
for sheep, as those animals will not eat, nor materially in- 
jure, the tops of the potatoes." 

The after-culture of potatoes consists in harrowing, hoe- 
ing, weeding, and earthing up. All potatoes require to be 
earthed up ; that is, to have at least one inch in depth of 
earth heaped on their roots, and extending six or eight 
inches round their stem. The reason is, that the tubers do 
not, properly speaking, grow under the soil, but rather on, or 
just partially bedded in its surface. Potatoes should, gene- 
rally, be hoed three times, though twice will do in ground 
not infested with weeds. The last hoeing should be fin- 
ished before the plants are in blossom ; otherwise the plants 
will be apt to form a second set of roots, which will not 
have time to come to maturity, but will rob those first 
formed of their nourishment. If weeds are prevalent, they 
should be cut up or pulled out, but the plants should not be 
earthed up in that stage of their growth. Plaster of Paris, 
well pulverized, and applied to the leaves, has a beneficial 
eff^ect on potatoes. 

Pinching off the blossoms. — It is now generally admitted, 
that a certain advantage, in point of produce, is obtained by 
pinching off the blossoms as they appear on the plants. The 
fact has been repeatedly proved, and satisfactorily accounted 
for, by Knight, who imagines that it will add an ounce in 
weight to the tubers of each plant, or considerably above a 
ton per acre. 

Gathering the crop* — It is believed that cultivators are apt 
to err by gathering their potatoes too early. The roots 



POTATO. 



255 



continue to grow larger and better after the tops have at- 
tained their full growth. The Hon. 0. Fiske, of Worces- 
ter, in an address to the Worcester Agricultural Society, 
says, " Nature has not accomplished its maturation at the 
period when the vines decay, and the farmer believes it to 
be ripe. It seems probable that the earth, by some un- 
known process, perfects its qualities after it has attained its 
growth. That potatoes, which have remained the whole 
season in the earth are more farinaceous, has been ascer- 
tained." it may be stated, as a general rule, that potatoes 
succeed best when planted early and dug late. But it is 
most advisable to harvest them before the occurrence of 
those soaking rains, which generally precede the setting in 
of winter. 

A mode of taking part of a crop is mentioned : — " Hav- 
ing ascertained that some of the tubers have attained an 
eatable size, go along the rows, and loosen the earth about 
each plant with a blunt stick, taking two or three of the 
largest tubers from each, and returning the earth carefully." 

The most expeditious way of gathering a potato crop is, 
first to run furrow^s on each side of the rows, and then a 
deep one in the middle, which turns up most of the roots 
to the surface, for the purpose of picking up by hand. In 
this way, however, we should apprehend some waste, and 
should not advise it, except where potatoes are plenty, and 
labour scarce. A hoe Vvdth prongs, such as is sold at J. R. 
NewelPs Agricultural Establishment, No. 52 North Market 
street, Boston, is, probably, the best implement for gather- 
ing potatoes. 

Securing the crop. — Mr. Buel, of Albany, says, "There 
are many erroneous notions, in regard to the culture and 
treatment of the potato, v/hich every class in society have 
an interest in exploding, as the root has become a necessa- 
ry food for every family." These errors consist in supposing 
" 1st. That potatoes should be grovv^n on a dry, warm soil. 
2d. That they should be dried in the sun, or washed, to 
render them pleasant to the eye. 3d. That they should be 
kept warm and dry during winter, to fit them for culinary 
uses. 4th. That they should be of large size." In con- 
tradiction to these popular opinions, he asserts, " First^ that 
the best potatoes are grown upon cold, moist, but porous 
and rich soils. Second^ that it were better the sun never 
should shine upon them — that they should be housed with 
all the dirt that adheres to them — that it is beneficial to add 
more dirt in the bin or cask, to exclude external air as 



256 



POTA'. 



much as possible. And, third^ that thej' f irface should be 
kept moist, and the atmosphere, which surrounds, as little 
above the point of freezing as possible." 

Potatoes maybe kept during winter in a cellar, free from 
frost, or in pits or caves in the held. In the latter case, they 
must be so situated on a dry knoll, or the side of a hill, as 
to be secured from the possibility of the pits being pervaded 
by water ; and they must be so covered, first with straw 
and then with loam, as to prevent the intrusion of frost. 
They may, likewise, be placed in barrels, casks, or boxes^ 
and if packed in moist sand, or the loam of the field in 
which they grew, they will be preserved better than in al- 
most any other situation. If they are exposed to the sun 
and air till the upper side acquires a green colour, they be- 
■^.ome poisonous. 

Use, — The use of the potato, as an article of diet both 
for man and beast, is, probably, more extensive, and more 
common, than that of any other vegetable production. 
From having no peculiarity of taste, and consisting chiefly 
of starch, it approaches near to the qualities of the flour of 
grain ; " and for this reason,'' says Loudon, it is the most 
universally liked, and can be used longer in constant suc- 
cession by the same individual without becoming unpalat- 
able, than any other vegetable, the seeds of grasses ex- 
cepted." Neill observes^ " so generally is it relished, and 
so nutritious is it accounted, that, on many tables, it now 
appear? almost every day in the year." 

An Essay on the Solamim Tuberosum^ by H. C. Wor- 
snam, from the Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and 
Physical Sciences^ gives the following summary view of the 
excellent qualities of this superlative root — " Having its 
origin in a warm climate, it was supposed to be intolerant 
of cold, and upon that account incapable of cultivation in a 
more northern clime. But experience has shown the con- 
trary, and the potato is naturalized almost in every region. 
With the lower classes of people, it is one of the greatest 
blessings which the soil produces, forming ' flour without a 
mill, and bread without an oven f- and, at all seasons of the 
year, an agreeable, wholesome dish, without expensive 
condiments. What resources does the potato present to us ? 
Its stalk, considered as a textile plant, furnishes in Austria 
a sort of flax — when burned, it yields much potash — its ap« 
pies, when ripe and crushed, ferment, and give spirits by 
distillation— its tubercles, made into a pulp, are a substitute 
^or soap, in bleaching. Cooked by steam, the potato is a 



PRUNING. 



257 



most healthy food. By different manipulations it furnishes 
two kinds of flour, a gruel and a parenchyma, which may 
be applied to increase the bulk of bread made from grain. 
Treated cliymically, it is converted into beer, vinegar, 
spirits^ &c." 

PRUNING. — In pruning the apple-tree and all other 
standard trees, the points of the external branches should 
be every where rendered thin and pervious to the light; 
so that the internal par.i of the tree may not be wholly 
shaded by the external parts. The light should vnetrate 
deeply into the tree, on every side; but not any yi^here 
through it. When the pruner has judiciously executed his 
work, every part of the tree, internal as well as external, 
will be productive of fruit ; and the internal part, in unfa- 
vourable seasons, will rather receive protection than injriTy 
from the externah A tree, thus pruned, will not only pr^ - 
duce much more fruit, but will also be able to support a 
heavier load of it, without danger of being broken; for any 
given weight v/ill depress the branch, not simply in propor- 
tion to its quantity, and its horizontal distance from the 
point of suspension, by a mode of action similar to that of 
the weight of the beam of the steel-yard; and hence a 
hundred and fifty pounds, suspended at one foot distance 
from the trunk, will distress the branch, which supports it^ 
no more than ten pounds at fifteen feet distance would do 
Every tree will, therefore, support a larger weight of fruit, 
without danger of being broken, in proportion as the parts 
of such weight are made to approach nearer to its centre. 

Each variety of the apple-tree has its own peculiar 
form of growth ; and this it will ultimately assume, in a 
considerable degree, in defiance of the art of the pruner. 
Something may nevertheless be done to correct whatevC 
is defective. When the growth of any variety is weak 
and reclining, the principal stem should be trained to a 
considerable height, before it be allowed to produce branch- 
es ; and if any of these take a horizontal or pendent direc- 
tion, they should be regularly taken off. One principal 
leading stem should be encouraged almost to the summit of 
the tree, to prevent a sudden division into two large boughs 
of nearly equal strength ; for the fork which these form is 
apt to divide and break, when the branches are loaded with 
fruit. All efforts to give young trees a round and regularly 
spreading form, whilst in the nursery, will be found injuri- 
ous in the future stages of their growth. Large branches 
22* 



258 



PUMPKIN. 



should rarely or never be amputated." — KnightPs Treatise 
on the Culture of the Apple and Pear, 

" Hitt recommends that the shape or figure of standards 
should be conical, like the natural growth of the fir-tree ; 
and this form, or the pyramidal or sub-cylindrical, is deci- 
dedly preferred by the French, and universally employed 
by the Dutch. 

" The season for pruning. — For all the operations of 
pruning, which are performed on the branches or shoots of 
trees, it would appear the period immediately before, or 
commensurate with, the rising of the sap, is the best." — 
Loudon. 

" My practice has been to prune in the spring, beginning 
when the buds have scarcely begun to swell, and ending 
before the expansion of the leaves. But I never leave 
' stumps' of limbs. Every branch, that is taken away, is 
cut close and even with the stem or limb where it grew ; 
and the healing of the wound commences and proceeds 
kindly as vegetation advances. If the branch cut off be 
large, the wound should be covered with some kind of plas- 
ter. ' ' — CoL Pickering, 

If, however, pruning is commenced at a proper stage of 
the growth of the tree, and properly and seasonably attend- 
ed to, it will rarely be necessary to take off a large limb, 
and small ones, if cut close and smooth, meiy be taken off 
any season. See remarks on pruning trees by a writer for 
the N. E. Farmery vol. iii. p. 273. 

PUMPKIN. — Cucurbita pepo, — The pumpkin is a native 
of India. Loudon says there are six species in cultivation, 
but gives no description of them. Russell's Catalogue enu- 
merates the following varieties : 

Finest yellow family pumpkin^ [ Mammoth, {wJiich have grown 

Connecticut field; to 226 lbs. weight,) 

Large cheese. Seven years, {ajine sort to keep.] 

Pumpkins will grow on any kind of soil, which is proper 
for head-crops, but the land cannot be made too rich for 
them. The Farmer^s Assistant thinks they will grow better, 
when planted by themselves, than when raised, as usual, 
with Indian corn. " The hills, in such case, should stand 
about seven feet apart each way, and a number of seeds 
should be planted in each hill, to make allowance for w^hat 
may be destroyed by insects. It will be well, however, to 
protect them by frames, covered by gauze, as directed, 
' 91^ under the article Cucumber. 



quiiscE. 



259 



Preservation, — Pumpkins may be kept in a cellar, for 
this Durpose, a considerable part of the winter; but the 
cellar must not be too warm ; and care must be taken not 
to break off the stems, but leave these attached to them ; 
otherwise they will soon commence rotting, at the places 
where the stems were broken off. — Farmer^s Assistant* 
They may likewise be preserved in mows of hay or straw, 
or in any dry situation, in which they are secure from frost. 

Use, — Loudon says of the pumpkin, Though common- 
ly cultivated in gardens for curiosity, yet, in some of the 
country villages in England, the inhabitants grow it on 
dunghills, at the backs of their houses, and train the shoots 
to a great length over grass. When the fruit is ripe, they 
cut a hole in one side, and, having taken out the seeds, fill 
the void space with sliced apples, adding a little sugar and 
spice, and then, having baked the whole, eat it with 
butter. — NeilL Pumpkin-pie, Abercrombie says, is very 
common [in Great Britain, and proverbially so in New 
England.] On the continent the fruit is a good deal used 
in soups, and also stewed and fried in oil and butter." Its 
culinary uses in the United States are too well known to 
need description ; but some may not be aware that " Pump- 
kins are excellent for fatting horses. They, however, do 
not relish them at first ; and therefore must be kept from 
feeding till they are hungry, before the pumpkins are offer- 
ed to them, and let a little salt be first sprinkled on this 
food ; when they will soon grow fond of it, and eat it 
readily without salt." 

QUINCE. — Pyrus cydonia. — The quince is a native of 
the southern and eastern parts of Europe. 

" Varieties, — Miller enumerates — 



the others, and therefore the most 
valuable. It is rather a shy bearer, 
but is hidily esteemed for marma- 
lade; as the pulp has the property of 
assuming a fine purple tint in the 
course of being prepared. 
The mild and eataole quince, less aus- 
tere and astrino-ent than the others. 



The oblong", or pear-quince, with 
oblong ovate leaves, and an ob- 
long fl-uit, lengthened at the base. 

The apple-quince, with ovate leaves^ 
and a rounder fruit. 

The Portugal quince, with ovate 
leaves, and an oblong fruit, which 
is more juicy, and less harsh than 

Propagation, — Generally by layers, but also by cut- 
tings ; and approved sorts may be perpetuated by grafting. 
In propagating for stocks, nothing more is necessary than 
to remove the lower shoots from the larger, so as to pre- 
serve a clean stem as high as the graft ; but for fruit-bearing 
trees, it is necessary to train the tree to a rod, till it has 
attained four or five feet in height, and can support itself 



260 



RADISH. 



upright. It is seldom planted but as a standard in the oF' 
chard, and a very few trees are sufficient for a family. 

" The time of planting, the mode of bearing, and all the 
other particulars of culture, are the same as for the apple 
and pear." — Loudon, 

" The stem of the quince is employed for the reception 
of apple and pear grafts, and has the property of giving 
to the fruit it bears greater precocity, an increased size, and 
improved flavour ; but with this drawback, that ' the quan- 
tity is small, and the product short-lived, as the age of the 
tree seldom exceeds ten or twelve years. ^ The quince- 
tree is liable to be attacked by the worm called the borer, 
the same as the apple-tree and the pear-tree, and the same 
remedies are recommended. ' 

Use, — " The fruit is not eaten raw ; but, stewed, or in 
pies or tarts, along "ivith apples, is much esteemed. In 
confectionary it forms an excellent marmalade and syrup. 
When apples are fiat, and have lost their flavour, Forsyth 
observes, a quince or two, in a pie or pudding, will add a 
quickness to them. In medicine, the expressed juice, re- 
peatedly taken in small quantities, is said to be cooling, 
astringent and stomachic. A mucilage prepared from the 
seeds was formerly much in use, but is now supplanted by 
the simple gums." — Loudon, " This fruit is generally boil- 
ed and eaten with sugar, in which form it may be usefully 
employed in cases of dysentery. Five gallons of the juice 
of quinces, mixed with twenty-five pounds of sugar, and 
fermented, affords a delicious wine. By boiling the kernels 
of quinces in water, a mucilage is extracted, which is often 
used in medicine as a substitute for that of gum Arabic. 
Quinces are excellent in apple-pies, in the proportion of 
one fourth quince to three fourths apple, with some thin 
slices of candied lemon-peel or citron." — Dom. Encyc, 

RADISH. — Raphanus sativus, — The garden-radish is a 
native of China, and introduced into England in 1584. 

Varieties, — Mr. Russell's Catalogue contains the follow- 
ing :— 



Early short-top scarlet, {a superi- 
or sort,) 
Early frame, 

Long white summer, or Naples, 
Purple-short top, 



Long salmon, 

Cherry, or scarlet turnip-rooted, 
Y/hite turnip-rooted^ 
Violet-coloured turnip-rooted, 

- ^ 'ik 



Black fall; or Spanisf 

Propagation. — All the varieties are raised from seed. 
Soil and situation, — The soil should be light and mellow 
well broken by digging. A scattering of the smaller grow- 



RADISH. 



261 



iog sorts may be sown among some broad-cast crops of 
larger growth, sucb as spinage, lettuce and onion ; it may 
also be drilled between wide rows of beans, or on ground 
intended to be sown with a late spring crop. 

Times of sowing. — " To have a consta-^t succession of 
radishes at table, the seeds should be sowo-i once a fort* 
night, from April [or the last of March] to August. But 
in midsummer they sooner grow sticky and strong, than in 
spring or fall. They must therefore be eaten w4iile they 
are young. I have had better success with those sown in 
August than in any other month." — Deane. 

Seed, process in sowing^ and common culture. — Sow each 
sort separately ; and for a bed four feet six inches by twelve 
feet, two ounces of seed will be required of the spring 
sorts, and an ounce and a half for the autumn varieties. 
All the kinds may be sown either broad-cast or in drills ; 
but the latter is preferable, as allowing the roots to be drawn 
regularly, with less waste. If you sow broad-cast, it is a 
good method to make beds four or five feet wide, wath al- 
leys between, a foot wide, the earth of which may be used 
to raise the beds, or not, as the season may make it desira- 
ble to keep the beds dry or moist. Avoid sowing ez^ces- 
sively thick, as it tends to make the tops run, and the roots 
stringy. Rake in the seed well, full half an inch deep, 
leaving none on the surface to attract birds. If you trace 
drills, let them be, for the spindle-rooted kinds, half an inch 
deep, and about two inches and a half asunder ; for the 
small turnip-rooted, three quarters of an inch deep, and four 
or five inches asunder; and for the black turnip or Spanish, 
six or eight inches asunder, because the root grows to the 
size of a middle-sized turnip. As the plants advance in 
growth, thin them so as to leave the spindle-rooted about 
two inches square distance, and the other sorts three, four, 
or five, leaving the most space to the respective sorts in 
free, growing weather. In dry, warm weather, water pretty 
frequently : this swells the roots, and makes them mild and 
crisp . ' ' — Ah ercromhie. 

" This root being liable to be eaten by worms, the fol- 
lowing method is recommended for raising them Take 
equal quantities of buck-w^heat bran, and fresh horse-dung, 
and mix them well and plentifully in the ground by dig- 
ging. Suddenly after this a great fermentation will be 
produced, and numbers of toad-stools will start up in forty- 
eight hours. Dig the ground over again, and sow the seed, 
aj)d the radishes will grow with great rapidity, and be free 



262 



RHUBARB. 



from the attacks of insects. Buck-wheat bran is an excel- 
lent manure of itself." — Farmer'^ s Assistant, 

Use. — " Formerly the leaves were often boiled and eaten ; 
but now the roots are chiefly employed. These are eaten 
raw in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The young 
seedling leaves are often used with cresses and mus- 
tard, as small salad ; and radish-seed pods, when of plump 
growth, but still young and green, are used to increase the 
variety of vegetable pickles, and are considered a tolerable 
substitute for capers." — Loudon. 

" Radishes are esteemed aperient, attenuating and anti- 
scorbutic : when eaten in moderate quantities, they are in 
a certain measure salubrious to persons of strong habits ; 
but are, in general, apt to produce a considerable degree of 
flatulency in those whose stomachs are relaxed. No rad- 
ishes, however, ought to be eaten when old, or after having 
been kept some time, as they are then utterly indigestible, 
and render the breath very offensive. — Dom, Encyc. 

Dr. Cojper observes that " Radishes ought to be sown 
in ri ch ground, and carefully tended, so as to grow quickly ' 
ii n )t, they are become stringy, in which state they are 
very unwholesome and indigestible." 

Seed, — ^' Radishes that are for seed require much room^ 
as lliey grow to a large size. For this purpose some of the 
most thrifty ones should be left standing ; or else be trans- 
planted to a place where each shall have as much room as 
nearly a yard square. The ripeness of the seed is known 
by the pods turning brown. For this purpose the seeds 
must be sown early in the spring, because they ripen slow- 
ly." — Deane. 

For forcing radishes, hot-beds, and culture proper for hot- 
bed productions, should be resorted to. See Encyc. of 
Gard p. 596. 

RHUBARB. — Rheum, — There are three species of this 
plant in cultivation — the R, rhaponticmn, a native of Asia ; 
R, hyhridum, also a native of Asia, and R, palmatim, a na- 
tive of Tartary, distinguished by its elegant palmate leaves, 
and considered as the true Turkey or Russia rhubarb. 

Propagation and culture, — " All the sorts may be raised 
either from seed or by dividing the roots. If from seed, 
which is the best mode, sow in light, deep earth, in spring ; 
and the plants, if kept eight or nine inches asunder, will be 
fit for transplanting in autumn, and for the next spring. 
When the roots are divided, care must be taken to retain a 
bud on the crov/n of each section ; they may be planted 



RHUBARB. 



263 



where they are finally to remain. When a plantation is to 
be made, the ground, which should be light and rather 
sandy, but well manured, should be trenched three spits, or 
as deep as the sub-soil will admit, adding a manuring of 
well rotted hot-bed dung. Then plant in rows, three feet 
wide by two feet, in the rows for the R, rhaponticum and^aZ- 
matum, and five feet by three feet in the rows for the 
R. hyhridum. No other culture is required than keeping 
the ground free of weeds, occasionally stirring it, during 
summer, with a three-pronged fork, and adding a dressing 
of well rotted manure every autumn or spring, stirring the 
ground as deep as possible. Some never allow the flower- 
stalks to produce flowers ; and others cut them over as 
soon as they have done flowering, to prevent the plants 
from being exhausted by the production of seeds. The 
former seems the preferable method, as the flower-stalks of 
plants cannot, like the leaves, be considered as preparing 
a reserve of nourishment for the roots. 

Blanching, — " The advantages of blanching the stalks of 
rhubarb, for culinary purposes, have been pointed out by 
T, Hare, Esq. — Hort. Trans, vol. ii. ' These are two-fold, 
namely, the desirable qualities of improved appearance and 
flavour, and a saving in the quantity of sugar necessary to 
render it agreeable to the palate, since the leaf-stalks, when 
blanched, are infinitely less harsh than those grown under 
the full influence of light, in an open situation.' It may 
either be blanched by earthing up the roots early in spring, 
or earthen pots may be used, as in blanching sea-kale. 

Taking the stalks. — " Remove a little earth, and, bending 
down the leaf you would remove, slip it off* from the 
crown without breaking, or using the knife. The stalks 
are fit to use, when the leaf is half expanded ; but a larger 
produce is obtained by letting them remain till in full ex- 
pansion, as is practised by the market-gardeners. The 
stalks are tied in bundles of a dozen and upvvarj^ and thus 
exposed for sale. 

To save seed. — " Leave one or two of the strongest 
flower-stalks to perfect their seeds, which they will do in 
J>}^v and August. 

Udc. — " The two first species are cultivated entirely, and 
the third, in gardens, principally, for the petioles of the root- 
leaves, which are peeled, cut down, and formed into tarts 
and pies in the manner of apples and gooseberries. The 
R. hyhridum affords the most abundant and succulent supply 
for this purpose." — Loiidon. 



264 



EOLLE U.— -RO S E E.0 S E M ARY . 



ROLLER. — This is a heavy cylindrical instrument, to 
pass over lands, render them more compact, and answ^er 
other useful purposes in field husbandry and gardening. 
Many of the complaints we hear, of seeds not growdng, 
arise from their not being rolled. Many seeds will not 
vegetate at ail, and many others will vegetate slowly, 
feebly, and imequally, if the ground be not rolled soon after 
the seed is sown. " Those rollers which are cut out of 
free-stone, bein^ heavier than wooden ones, are best to 
smooth and harden the alleys in gardens. But wooden 
ones answer better in tillage, when they are sufficiently 
large. A roller for field-husbandry should be five or six 
feet long ; so that it may perform much in a short time, 
being drawn by a horse or yoke of oxen, for either of which 
it may be easily harnessed. It should be made perfectly 
round and smooth, that it may be drawn the more easily, 
and press the ground more equally in all parts. And it 
should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches diameter. 
Being large, the pressure will be greater, and the surface 
will be the more level." — Deane, 

Where there is no roller on the premises, the following 
is recommended as a substitute : — After the seed is sown, 
sind the ground well raked, take a board or boards, of the 
whole length of the bed ; lay them flat on the ground ; be- 
ginning at one edge of the bed, walk the whole length of 
the board ; this will press the soil on the seed ; then shift 
the board, till you have thus gone over the whole bed ; and 
in dry weather, cover your beds, for forty-eight hours, with 
boards laid flat on the soil, and the seeds will come up al- 
most immediately. If no boards are at hand, tread in the 
seed with your feet, or strike on the bed with the blad» of 
your spade or shovel. 

ROSE.— Flowers, p. 125. 

ROSEMARY. — Rosmarinus officinalis. — " The rosemary 
is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe. 
It is ctn evergreen, rising sometimes six or eight feet high, 
though rarely. The leaves are sessile, linear, dark-green 
above, and grayish or whitish underneath ; the blossoms are 
of a pale blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic. 

" Varieties. — These are. 

The green; or common,. | Tlie gd^d-strlpecl; | The silver-striped. 

Culture. — The green is hardiest as a plant, and is the 
sort generally used. The finest plants are raised from seed, 
sown either broad-cast or in drills, six inches apart. This 
plant is also propagated by cuttings and suckers. Planted 



RUE. SAGE. 



265 



in the month of March, six inches apart, and inserted two 
thirds of their length in the ground, they will take root 
freely, and, by the month of September, be fit for trans- 
planting wherever destined to remain." — M^Mahon. 

RUE. — Rata gravcolens, — This is an under-shrub, an 
evergreen, which prefers a light soil, and is easily propa- 
gated by cuttings or seeds. Mr. Armstrong says, " its 
beauty is much increased by lopping the branches close to 
the earth every fourth year." 

Use. — Boerhaave recommends the leaves of rue as of 
great service to persons of cold, phlegmatic habits ; as they 
quicken the circulation, dissolve viscid or tenacious juices, 
remove obstructions, and promote the fluid secretions. Mr. 
Wilson, in his Economy of the Kitchen Garden^ says, "The 
most effectual remedy for expelling worms, that has ever 
come under my observation, was effected by an infusion of 
the tops of rue, given in gin to the patient, in the morning, 
fasting." 

SAGE. — Salvia officinalis, — Sage is a native of the south 
of Europe. Its varieties are, 



The red; 

The broad-leaved; or balsamiC; 
The green; 



The small-leaved greeii; or sage 
of virtue. 



Estimate of sorts. — " The red is the principal sort in culi- 
nary use, having the most agreeable and the fullest flavour; 
the green is next in estimation with the cook ; but the 
small-leaved is generally preferred to those to eat as a raw 
herb, and for decoctions ; while the broad-leaved, balsamic 
species is the most efficacious in a medical way, and is also 
a tea-herb. However, any of the sorts may be occasionally 
used for these alternate purposes. 

Culture. — " They are all propagated alike, by seeds or 
suckers, and by portions of old roots, and grow well in any 
soil not positively wet. Till three or four years old, they 
have a healthy and agreeable appearance, forming full and 
regular tufts ; but, after this period, they lose the central 
branches, and even become ragged and broken at the 
edges. The treatment already suggested for rue might be 
useful for sage. Under it, the roots would probably renew 
their vigour, and throw out new and healthy shoots ; but 
of this theory we have no experience." — Armstrong. 

Use. — " The leaves are used in stuffings and sauces, for 
many kinds of luscious and strong meats, as well as to im- 
prove the flavour of various articles of cookery. The de- 
23 



266 



SALSIFY. SAVOllY. 



coction called sage-tea is usually made from one variety, 
the small-leav^ed green, or sage of virtue ; but any of the 
others are equally fit for this purpose." — Loudon. 

SALSIFY, or OYSTER FLAIS^T.— Tragopogon porri- 
folius. — The salsify is a hardy biennial, a native of Eng- 
land. The root is long and tapering, of a fleshy white sub- 
stance ; the herb smooth, glaucous, and rising three or four 
feet high. The leaves resemble those of the leek ; the 
flowers are of a dull purple colour, closing soon after mid- 
day; the seed, as in other species of goat's beard, is re- 
markable for having attached to it a broad feathery crow^it. 

Culture, — It resembles a small parsnep in its appearance. 
It is raised annually from seeds, and as easily, requiring 
no more care than the carrot. It bears a tolerable crop. 

Use. — ^' In this country it is parboiled, and then fried 
either in batter or w^ithout. It forms an admirable garnish 
for boiled fowls or turkies. In its taste it so strongly re- 
sembles the ayster, that, wdien sliced and fried in batter, it 
can scarcely be distinguished from it. If our gardeners 
w-ould introduce it into the market, and biir citizens once 
try it, there would be no danger of its ever failing hereafter 
to be raised. It is in eating from November to Mayj pre- 
cisely the period in which our vegetable market is most 
deficient in variety." — JohnLowell^ Esq. in Mass. Agr. Repos, 

" The stalks of the tragopogon may be cut in the spring, 
when they are four or five inches high, and dressed like 
asparagus, in which thej eat very tender and well." — Rees^- 
Cyclopedia. 

SAVORY. — Satureja. — Two species of this plant are 
cultivated — the winter and swnmer savory. 

Winter savory is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the 
south of France and Italy. The shoots are furnished with 
two narrow,^ stiff leaves, an inch long, placed opposite at 
each joint, and from the base of these a few small leaves 
proceed in clusters. It produces whitish flowers in May 
and June» 

Smnmer savory is a hardy annual, a native of Italy. The 
branches are slender, erect, and about a foot high ; leaves 
opposite, and almost an inch in length. It flow^ers in June 
and July. 

Culture. — ^lYinter savory is a perennial plant, and is 
propagated from seeds or slips ; summer savory, from seeds 
only. Both sorts will grow on almost any soil, r it is 
&aid that the winter kind grows best on barren soi:^. 



SEA-KALE. 



267 



Use,—^^ Both the summer and winter savory have long 
been cultivated for culinary and medicinal purposes* Their 
warm, aromatic, pungent leaves are much esteemed in sal- 
ads : formerly, they were employed medicinally, with a 
view to attenuate viscid humours, to dispel flatulency, and 
to increase the appetite. According to Professor Bradley, 
this herb, when dry, and put into a bed, possesses the 
remarkable property of expelling fleas." — Do7n, Encyc. 

SEA-KALE.^ — Cramba marithna, — The sea-kale grows 
spontaneously on many parts of the sea-coast of Great Britain. 
The inhabitants watch when the shoots begin to push up the 
sand and gravel, in March and April, when they cut off the 
young shoots and leaf-stocks, then blanched and tender, 
and boil them as greens. 

Use. — " The young spring shoots, and the stalks of the 
imfolding leaves, blanched by rising through the natural 
ground in a wild state, or by earthing up in gardens, are 
the parts used ; and, when boiled, and dressed like aspara- 
gus, are not inferior to that vegetable. They form also an 
excellent ingredient in soups. Sometimes the ribs of the 
large leaves are peeled and dressed as asparagus, after the 
plant has ceased to send up young growths. By forcing, 
sea-kale may be had in perfection from November till May, 
a period including all the dead months of the year. It is 
remarked by Nicol, that vegetables are seldom improved 
by forcing, but that sea-kale forms an exception, the forced 
shoots produced at mid-winter being more crisp and delicate 
in flavour than those procured in the natural way, in April or 
May. Sir George Mackenzie (CalecL HorL Mem, vol. i. 
313) observes, that sea-kale cannot easily be overdone in 
cooking, and that, after being well-boiled, it should be 
thoroughly drained, and then suffered to remain a few 
minutes before the lire, that a further portion of moisture 
may be exhaled." — Loudon. 

John Lowell, Esq., in a communication, published in the 
Mass, Agr. Journal^ says, It is very iiardy — grows in any 
tolerable soil — is perennial, and costs not half the labour 
bestowed on asparagus. It may be raised from the seed 
or from the root, and fifty plants, occupying a very small 
space, will supply a single family. In its taste it resembles 
the cauliflower. The only labour it requires, is, to cover it 
with sand or earth, or vv^ith pots or boxes in March, so as 
to exclude the light, and to blanch it, or make it white. If 
not blanched, it is neitlier so beautiful to the eye, nor so ten- 
der, nor so delicate to the taste, as if blanched. It should be 



268 



SILK. 



thoroughly boiled, and is better if boiled in milk and water. 
It should be served up like cauliflowers, with melted butter. 
It comes in at a season in which our vegetables in this 
country are very deficient." 

Mr. Armstrong says, " In November, whether your bed 
has been filled with plants or with seedlings, be careful to 
cover them with a thick coat of well-rotted dung, and so 
soon in the spring or summer as you find them pushing 
through this covering, put over each a garden-pot inverted, 
having first stopped the bottom holes. The signal for cut- 
ting is when the plants have arisen about three inches 
above the surface." 

SILK. — The following article, on a subject, whose im- 
portance is beginning to be duly appreciated in the United 
States, was written expressly for this work, at the request 
of the compiler, by a gentleman, who has a practical, as 
well as scientific knowledge of the processes pursued in 
Europe in the manufacture of silk : — 

The cultivation of the soil is a duty, which was imposed 
on man almost coeval with the creation. It bears with it 
the sanctity of a primeval ordinance, and is irresistibly en- 
dearing, inasmuch as it admirably suits our nature, so as 
to promote, in a singular degree, health and comfort, vigour 
and clearness of mind ; the blessing on a ready compliance 
with this divine law is evident from the happiness which 
flows therefrom, and which would make of the cultivators of 
the land, under some better advantages of education, the 
greatly favoured order of society. It is at the table of their 
own providing, that the nation is entertained — it is to the 
vigour, and to the faithfulness of their arm, that it trusts 
for its security. 

All hail. Agriculture and its noble bands I On the fra- 
grant earth their appointed labour is performed ; their dome 
is the pure vault of heaven, and their employ is that by 
Mercy assigned for the renovation of our race. There, 
since the days of old, has been the firm foundation of na- 
tional greatness ?aid prosperity ; and there it must remain 
until the end of time. It is to those purposes, that com- 
prehensive and active minds would find delight in directing 
their powers, because of the vastness of the field to ex- 
plore, and of the greatness of the results to be expected. 

Much has been said of the roughnes.'i of the Ncv/ Eng- 
land soil and climate, and much more than ever was true. 
Since the time of the Pilgrims, hov/evcr, wlmt harshness 
there was has been softened, and the cliniale, in our days, 



SILK. 



269 



is hastening to take its rank among the most favoured for 
temperaUire and healthfuhiess. When the eye roams among 
our hiiis and vales, where can we meet with a more de- 
lightful variety? or a choice of aspects, and situations, so 
valuable for agricultural purposes ? Some of our land is 
hard to work, because it wants a more thorough cultivation ; 
and some abounds with rocks, that we may find there 
the best materials for our dwellings. What is there want- 
ing, then, to make of Nev/ England a vast garden ? Noth- 
ing, but contented labour, and intelligence to direct it — 
and that we have. Let all awake, then, and try to improve, 
to the best advantage, the natural abilities of the country — 
and w^e shall find, that, far from any cause of discourage- 
ment, we are greatly favoured. 

To the cultivation of grain and potatoes, we have discov- 
ered (in late years) that the soil and climate are well 
adapted to the raising of wool, even of Merino ; and in 
a wonderfully short time, all over the land, there are great 
sheep-folds. There are also manufactures that employ all 
that wool, and much more, and provide us with comforta- 
ble and handsome clothing. 

There are other mines yet unexplored. To the indus- 
trious and active, the prize must belong; and to them, we 
wish to point out the article of silk, as one most deserving 
their attention. What is there, that the soil can yield, so 
rich as silk, and that can be obtained with so easy a labour? 
Excepting the first raising and planting of the mulberry- 
trees, all the w^ork can be performed by women, children, 
and aged people. W e are fully and sufficiently satisfied, 
that this noble article may be made a staple of our coun- 
try ; and the advantages that would result from it, in a 
private and national point of view, are so important, that 
we cannot deny ourselves the satisfaction of devoting a few 
pages of this volume to that interesting subject — hoping 
that they may prove acceptable and, eventually, useful to 
many of our readers. 

The raising of silk is not altogether novel in our land : 
many individuals in Massachusetts and Connecticut have 
attended to it for a number of years, with much advan- 
tage ; and it is a fact fully established, that the soil 
and climate are congenial to the flourishing growth of the 
mulberry ; and that the silk- worms will thrive in New 
England, under proper management, as well as they do in 
most parts of Europe, where the raising of silk is the vital 
sinew of the community. Without any further remarks, 
23* 



270 



SILK. 



we shall enter, therefore, upon the subject, and set down, 
first, such practical information as relates to the raising of 
mulberry-trees. 

The mulberry and the silk-worm are natives of Asia. 
They were both unknown in Europe until the year 555 — ■ 
when the emperor Justinian sent two monks to Serinda, 
in India, from whence they brought to Constantinople the 
seed of those precious insects, and the necessary informa- 
tion for their management. Thus they laid the foundation 
of those superb silk manufactures, which, for near seven 
hundred years, flourished in Greece, at Athens, at Thebes, 
and Corinth. Before that time, the great of the earth, 
alone, could afford to clothe themselves with silk ; the 
price of which was weight for weight in gold. About six 
hundred years after, the culture of silk was introduced from 
Greece into Italy; and from thence into France, in the 
year 1494. Since those days, it has spread over all the 
southern and midland parts of Europe, and is now cultivat- 
ed with success as far north as Prussia, where the mul- 
berry-tree resists the most rigorous winters without injury. 

There are tvvo different species of mulberry, — the blacky 
which is cultivated for its excellent faiit, of a dark crimson 
colour, almost black ; and is a tree of slovv^er grovv th than 
the white ; the leaves are larger, of a darker green, thicker 
and stronger. The silk-worms will eat them for the want 
of better, but they do not thrive upon them, and the silk is 
coarse and inferior. The white mulberry-tree bears a white, 
or light pink fruit ; and its leaves are the most congenial 
food for these precious insects ; is of a quicker growth, and 
does not come to so large a size as the black. The white 
mulberry is a very hardy tree, and bears our severest win- 
ters without any apparent injury ; will last a great many 
years, and, if cut down close to the ground, will send up 
many suckers all around, and resist destruction for several 
years. There are many kinds of whi^e mulberry, the 
leaves of which differ in point of merit as a food for the 
silk-worm. Some are of a small size, earlier, and more 
tender ; and, on that account, are cultivated as the most 
proper for the worms when first born ; others are large, 
and of a peculiar quality, which suits the taste of the 
worms, upon which they thrive best, and make the hand- 
somest silk. In France and Italy, they universally graft 
the wild stocks with those sorts which experience has 
taught them to be the most valuable. 

At this early stage of the business with us, it would be 



SILK. 



271 



difficult to attain, at once, the nicety which a long practice 
has introduced in the old countries. What we have io do 
for the present, is, to sow mulberry-seed, raise the young 
plants as in a ji .ii^ery, reject those whereon thorns appear, 
as being tlie wildest, and bearing the smallest leaves ; also 
those that have thick, coarse, hairy leaves. Save th'jse 
that have the largest and handsomest smooth leaves ; the 
worms eat them more readily, and experience has shown 
that they thrive best upon them, make more silk, and of a 
better quality. The best plants for earliness and superiori- 
ty of leaves, should be set out and noted; as they may 
hereafter furnish scions for grafting. Upon a dry soil, the 
mulberry-trees do not grow much taller than our largest 
peach-trees ; but they are stouter and thicker set. Their 
roots, which are of a remarkably bright gold colour, (that 
of silk,) extend to a considerable distance ; and they ought 
not to be planted, on that account, nearer than thirty feet 
from tree to tree. 

As the gathering of leaves too soon would injure the 
growth and constitution of the trees, w^e would recommend 
that no leaves should be gathered from them until after the 
fifth year. In the mean time plantations may be made for 
immediate use, by sov/ing the seed in drills, at a conveni- 
ent distance ; planting beans or potatoes between, to keep 
the ground clear of weeds. The second year after sow- 
ing, these seedlings might be cut down with a sharp instru- 
ment, three or four inches from the ground, and \vonld give 
a second crop the same season. In the silk countries, they 
raise seedlings in rows for the first feeding of the worms : 
these young plants, putting out their leaves earlier than 
the old trees, and being more tender, are better adapted for 
the worms in the first stage of their existence. They also 
plant the mulberry-trees, and suffer them to grow accord- 
ing to unrestrained nature, branching out from the ground. 
This is for the convenience of gathering the leaves more 
easily, and making a food stronger than the seedlings. They 
consider the leaves from trees regularly trained, with a single 
butt, and of several years' growth, to give the most substan- 
tial food ; upon which the worms should be kept during the 
last period of their life, previous to their ascending, in order 
to obtain an abundant crop of silk of the best quality. At 
our first entering on this new and profitable business, we 
shall be under the necessity of trusting wholly to our rows 
of seedlings, as the only food we can offer to the worms. 
F'l^ when the trees planted out come to maturity, we shall 



272 



SILK. 



adopt the more systematic way of feeding, which experience 
has pointed out as most favourable ; although, with us, the 
despatch of cutting down the seedlings for food, instead of 
the slow process of gathering leaves, will always remain an 
object of serious consideration. 

The white mulberry thrives in all soils and situations, 
and will grow very rank and full of leaves upon low, moist 
ground ; but the food it affords in such situations is very 
inferior, and apt to disorder the worms. A warm loam, 
even if gravelly, will give leaves of the best quality ; and 
a sheltered, warm situation will produce leaves many days 
sooner than one which is exposed to cold, and is desirable 
on that account. 

The mulberry-tree may be raised from suckers ; and some- 
times slips, stuck in a moist soil, will take root; if the low 
branches of a tree can be bent so as to be fastened, and 
covered in the ground, they will take root. The trees may 
be planted near buildings, for shade, or in a yard; the 
fowls are very fond of the fruit when it falls. A variety 
of situations will increase the means of early and late feed- 
ing, which is very desirable. 

We shall conclude these remarks on the cultivation of 
the mulberry, by observing, that the most esteemed seed 
of that tree in Europe is that raised in Piedmont. The 
seed from Spain is also excellent. The seed of the best 
quality is large, bright, and heavy ; when bruised, it will 
appear oily, and when thrown on ignited coals, it will 
crackle. 

The next object to consider is, the seed from which the 
worms are to be hatched ; and here it will be proper to ob- 
serve, that one ounce of seed will produce about forty 
thousand worms, who will consume about one thousand 
pounds' weight of leaves, and produce from eighty to one 
hundred pounds of cocoons ; and twelve pounds of cocoons 
will give about one pound of silk. It is of the greatest 
importance to procure the best seed, because that which is 
inferior will produce sickly worms, who will be much more 
exposed to the various disorders to which these insects are 
subject ; a greater proportion will die, and those which sur- 
vive will not make good cocoons. The best seed is of a 
dark grey colour, almost as dark as slate, looks bright, and 
if thrown into wane will sink. The seed which is light, 
of a white or yellow colour, and looks dull, is barren and 
good for nothing. The seed should be kept in a cool, 
dry situation, until the mulberry-trees have their leaves 



SILK. 



273 



opened ; when the food is thus in readiness, then is the 
time to get it hatched. In Italy and France, at that ap- 
pointed time, the women put the seed in small bags of 
worsted stuff, and place them in their bosoms, during the 
day, and at night under their pillows, for about forty-eight 
hours ; at the expiration of which, the seed is transferred 
into boxes, over which a paper cover is fastened w^ith many 
small holes, through w^hich the little worms will creep. 
Some mulberry leaves should be placed on the paper, so that 
they may feed, which they will do as soon as they come to 
life. These boxes are placed on feather beds v>^ith pillows 
around them, in order to keep a uniform heat whilst the 
worms are hatching. Those which come to life in the 
course of the same day, should be collected and kept to- 
gether; they will shed their skins, and ascend to make 
their cocoons, at the same period. The hatching of each 
successive day should be kept separate ; this order will 
render their management and care easier, and more profita- 
ble. ^.V^hen the hatching has been well conducted, the 
heat proper and regular, most of the worms will make their 
appearance on the third or fourth day ; and such seed as 
has not come to life on the fifth or sixth day is not worth 
preserving ; for, if it should hatch, the worms will be v^^eak- 
ly, and not likely to do well. If, on the second day, the 
seed that has been set to hatch should change colour, and 
appear red, it proves that the heat has been too great, and 
that the seed is spoiled. 

In the middle provinces of France, where the climate is 
variable, and subject to sudden returns of cold, the cultiva- 
tors are very cautious occasionally to exclude the outv/ard 
air, by shutting the doors and windovrs, and always in the 
night and early part of the morning. Sudden cold, damp- 
ness, and especially foggy weather, are sure to injure the 
worms by bringing disease upon them, v/hich will often 
prove fatal, and alv/ays reduce the quantity, and injure the 
quality, of the silk. A uniform temperature, noi; too warm, 
is considered as very desirable for the success of the silk 
crop ; and about seventy-three degrees of the thermometer 
of Fahrenheit is the most suitable. 

The silk-worms shed their skins four times, w^hich is for 
them a period of sickness, during w^hich they do not eat, 
but appear drov/sy, and are more particularly affected by 
any sudden change of the weather to cold or damp. The 
first shedding takes place the sixth or seventh day after 
their birth; the head appears to increase in size, and they 



274 



SILK. 



cast off their skins. This time of trial for them will last 
three or four days, if the weather is warm and genial; 
but if it is cold and damp, they are much longer to get 
through it. As soon as the skin is cast off, they appear 
active again, eat with a good appetite, and will continue 
so for six or eight days, when the second shedding comes 
on under the same circumstances, and is succeeded by a 
third and fourth shedding. The second shedding is the 
easiest for them, and fewer die under its operation than 
during the first, third, and fourth. Eight days after the 
worms have got through the fourth shedding, and at the end 
of about six weeks from the commencement of their exist- 
ence, they have arrived nearly to maturity, and are going 
to make their cocoons, and reward the care that has been 
taken of them. They want then to go up to spin their 
cocoons, but it is necessary not to encourage this natural 
disposition, until it is evident that they are fully ripe. If 
they go up too soon, their cocoons will be light and flimsy. 
The signs of their full maturity are, some change in their 
colour, which until then is white ; the head appears wilt- 
ed, the tail larger, the green circles round the body become 
of a bright gold colour, and they keep moving about among 
the others, but without eating, and seem as if stretching 
their heads for the purpose of spinning. When the worms 
exhibit these indications, they should be separated from the 
rest, and put into a place where small, dry branches of oak, 
hazel, white birch, or any other wood, have been prepared 
for them to ascend and spin their cocoons. When they 
have ascended, it will be some days before they begin to 
spin. The first day they lay out threads for a foundation — 
the second, they form the shape of the cocoons — the third, 
the worm is entombed and out of sight, but continues to 
spin (inside) until he has expended the whole of his stock 
of liquor, which, in general, is the seventh or eighth day. 
The thread of a good cocoon is about nine hundred and 
fifty feet. 

It is highly important to feed the worms in that particu- 
lar way which experience has shown to be the most suit- 
able ; the leaves, at all times, should be -dry v» hen given to 
them; therefore, when rain is likely to fall, it is necessary 
to gather in a stock, before they get wet ; if the weather 
set in to steady rain, the leaves should be spread in a sepa- 
rate room, and dried before they are given to tlie worms; 
leaves wetted by rain, or dew, will either kill them, or bring 
on some bad disorder; from their birth to the second shed- 



SILK. 



275 



ding, they should be fed twice a day, morjiing and even- 
ing ; afterwards three times a day, to the fourth shedding ; 
and then, until they ascend, four, five, or six times a day, as 
they may seem to require it ; from the fourth shedding until 
they ascend, their appetite is voracious, and it should be 
satisfied by an abundance of leaves of the best quality ; 
those from old trees, matured by age, should be reserved for 
this period, and given to them fresh gathered and dry. 

The worms, throughout the period of their existence, 
should be attended with great care and regularity ; they 
should be kept perfectly clean, clearing away, often, the 
remains of the leaves, their own ordure, &c., which other- 
wise would create a disagreeable effluvia, and breed disor- 
ders among them ; bad smells are very obnoxious to them, 
and no smoking of tobacco should be allowed where they 
are kept ; they should be fed early in the morning, and 
good leaves should be given them regularly at the times 
appointed, that no waste of food may take place ; the leaves 
should be fresh gathered, unless in rainy weather, and no 
leaves offered to them, that have been kept in the house 
until they have become yellow and sour, which will be the 
case, in general, after the third day ; it is upon these atten- 
tions, that a good crop depends; half-starved, neglected 
worms, will give light, flimsy cocoons, whilst the diligent 
will get them heavy and rich ; worms well attended to, and 
generously fed, will complete the crop within forty-five or 
fifty days ; those that are neglected will languish over two 
months, and yield a light result. 

The French and Italian establishments require large 
premises, and a great variety of utensils, such as benches, 
baskets, boxes of various sizes and shapes, to suit their ex- 
tensive concerns ; in the progress of time, it will become 
advisable for us to get acquainted with the minutise of their 
arrangements ; but at the present day, we shall only point out 
such preparations as may be requisite to make a beginning, 
and which each individual concerned may afterwards in- 
crease and modify, according to his own views and situation. 

Wherever silk-worms are to be raised in any number, it 
is evident that a room should be appropriated solely for that 
purpose ; any aspect will answer, except north ; the worms 
require heat, but it must be a free heat, that is, with a suf- 
ficient circulation of air ; a close, sultry air is very bad for 
them, and so is a damp air ; we would much prefer, on that 
account, a room up stairs to one on the ground floor ; an 
unfinished room would answer very well ; the doors and 



276 



SILK, 



windows ought to De closed whenever a sudden transition 
to cold or damp takes place, or a thunder-storm comes on, 
which, oftentimes, will prove an injury to these insects ; 
shelve« of boards, put up round the room, Vv^ould be very 
convenient to keep the worms on, and^ if requisite, a frame 
in the centre of the room, with shelves one over the other; 
sheets of large, stilf paper, or of pasteboard, with the edges 
turned up all round, and stitched at the corners, would an- 
swer very well to keep and feed the worms in, and when 
they are to be cleaned, new leaves might be put in a fresh 
paper, and laid by the side of that which wants cleaning ; 
the worms would leave it quickly to go to the fresh leaves, 

Jt will be necessary to appropriate a corner for the dis- 
eased worms ; in the most favoured crop, there will be 
many, and they ought to be taken av» ay immediately, from 
among the rest, and put into the hospital to recover, other- 
wise the contagion may extend, and a great loss ensue. 

After the cocoons are made, the first care is to take them 
dovv'n fL'om the brush, clearing away the loose silk by which 
they are fastened, and selecting the best, those liiat feel 
hard and substantial, and of the brightest colour, to keep 
for seed ; the most desirable are the worms, which, at the 
hatching time, came to life first ; they prove to be the most 
hardy, ?aid will make the best stock; it is necessary to keep 
an equal number of each sex; the male cocoons are the 
longest and thinnest, pointed at both ends ; the females are 
larger and rounder, blunt at both ends, and resembling 
sornev/hat in shape a hen's egg; these chosen cocoons are 
to be threaded v/ith a needle, in strings of fifty, more or 
Jess, taking great care to run the needle slightly through 
the silk, without hurting the chrysalis %vhich is inside ; 
these strings are to be hung against the Vvainscot of the 
room, and, in the course of from fifteen to twenty days, the 
millers will come out, males and females ; the males ahvays 
com.e out first ; the females are the whitest and the largest ;" 
the males appear most active, and shake their wings. It is 
necessprry to procure pieces of woollen cloth, (the Italians 
always use scarlet,) and to place the millers on them in 
rows, male and female by the side of each other; after 
p?Jring, the male dies ; the female soon lays her seed on 
the cloth ; it appears as if glued on ; a female yields about 
three hundred seeds ; they are first v/hite or yellow, and 
change to va^rious hues, and fi.naliy, if good, become and re- 
main of a dark grey. The Italians preserve the seed on the 
pieces of sca.rlet cloth, and at the proper time their women 



SILK. 



277 



wear them in their hosoms, as observed before, to hatch it. 
The French are in the habit of scraping the seed off from the 
cloth, and by wetting, slightly, the back of the cloth, it 
will come off easy, and without injury ; they put it up, then, 
in small bags ; whether it is scraped from, or left on the 
cloth, it should be packed carefully, and preserved over the 
winter, in a dry place, where it does not freeze^ and where it 
is not too hot ; if it should freeze, the principle of life would 
be destroyed, and if it should be too warm, the seed would 
start for hatching, and would be lost ; one hundred pair of 
cocoons will weigh about one pound, and give about one 
ounce of seed. 

Persons who intend to make a business of raising silk 
should raise their own seed ; it is too important a part of 
the concern to intrust to strangers ; they should pay the 
most particular attention to the choice of the cocoons, which 
they select for seed, and to the preservation of that seed 
through the winter. The French use stoves to warm occa- 
sionally the rooms, where the worms are reared, and thus 
secure them against any unexpected return of cold weather, 
and perhaps it may be requisite to use that caution in such 
parts of New England, as are much to the north or west of 
Boston ; in its neighbourhood, and farther south, we be- 
lieve that it would not be necessary, and that the only cau 
tion requisite, would be the closing of doors and windows, 
whenever a sudden change in the weather might require 
it. We have observed before, that hot weather is favour- 
able for the worms, and they can bear it to a high degree, 
provided it is not sultry and close ; on that account, the 
room where they are kept should be so situated, and the 
windows so arranged, that there may be at any time a 
thorough draft, when wanted, so as to prevent that dead- 
ness of air, and unpleasant smell, which would greatly en- 
danger the health and lives of the worms ; in extreme cases 
of sultriness, the French are in the habit of burning a small 
quantity of nitre, in an earthen ware dish, which greatly 
improves the atmosphere of the premises ; it may also an- 
swer a good purpose, in such cases, to heat a brick or a 
stone, and throw on it some vinegar. 

Respectmg the hatching, from the information we have 
obtained of individuals who have attended to that business 
in our country, nothing is required, when the proper time 
comes, but to place the seed in a warmer room, but not to 
the sun, and it will hatch naturally in the course of a short 
time ; it will take several days, and a longer time than when 
24 



278 



SILK. 



assisted by human heat ; but which is the best, and prefer- 
able metiiod of the two, for our climate, time and experi- 
ence must determine ; the French and Italians think the 
finest crop is generally secured by hastening the worms 
through the various stages of their existence, from the 
hatching to the ascending, and that any check or delay is 
to be esteemed as unfavourable to the ultimate success ; 
hence their vigilance to secure an even temperature in the 
apartments, an abundance of food for the worms, adapted 
to their age, in its quality, a perfect and constant cleanliness, 
and such an arrangement of the windows, doors, and traps 
ia the floors, as to ensure a free circulation of air, and to 
prevent that suffocating and offensive atmosphere, which 
would undoubtedly occasion a great mortality amoDg them. 
The cocoons will not be of a uniform colour, they will be of 
various shades of yellow, and some v/hite, yet they all are 
of one and the same species, and may all be worked to- 
gether ; after the cocoons are gathered, and cleared of the 
llos silk, which fastened them to the brush, they should be 
reeled without delay, and before the millers come out, for 
if the silk is left on until then, the quality is thereby in- 
jured ; they should be thrown into a kettle of hot water, a 
Bmall quantity at a time, and stirred with light, clean rods ; 
this will dissolve the tenacious gum by which the threads 
adhere together ; female industry will search out the end 
of the thread, and wind and spin the threads from ten to 
fourteen cocoons together into one single thread, with that 
care and correctness which will make a silk perfectly even, 
and perfectly clean. 

Here we could enter mto minute details, and furnish 
drawings of such winding and reeling machines as are used 
in the large Italian and French establishments, but v»^e con- 
sider that, at the present early period, it v/ould have a ten- 
dency to fatigue and perplex the attention of such of our 
readers as may wish to embark in a trial ; their first attempt 
will probably be upon a limited scale, and undoubtedly the 
simple means used for winding and reeling in this state and 
in Connecticut, which may be more easily learnt by actual 
view than by tedious descriptions, Vv^ill be found amply suf- 
ficient, and, as we progress in the business, our own intelli- 
gence and experience, gradually assisted by further informa- 
tion respecting the practice of Europe, v/ill make us fully 
acquainted with the best process. When it is not conveni- 
ent to v/ind and reel all the cocoons at that time, then all 
the millers must be destroyed before they come out, in order 



SILK. 



279 



to save the silk from injury ; this may be done in the follow- 
ing manner ; — a kettle of hot water must be prepared, and, 
when boiling, a sieve, filled with cocoons about three or four 
inches thick, may be placed over the kettle, so as to receive 
the hot steam without dipping in the water; a wooden 
cover may be placed over the sieve to confine the steam, 
and, after leaving it in that situation for about ten minutes, 
you throw the cocoons into a cloth, and wrap them up in it, 
that the heat may be sure to penetrate into them, and de- 
stroy the life of the chrysalis ; they must, immediately af- 
terwards, be spread in the sun to dry thoroughly, and then 
be put away on shelves, or on a floor, spread very thin, that 
the dead insects within may dry up and harden, otherwise 
they might corrupt there, and stain the silk ; when this is 
done, the cocoons may be kept, if convenient, for three 
years, without any ill effect to the quality of the silk, which 
will wind easily, and be as good as if it had been wound 
immediately, but will not appear quite so bright. 

At the opening of the season, the object to attend to is, 
as soon as convenient, to procure good seed of the vvhite 
mulberry, and to sow it in rows as before directed, hoeing 
the young plants carefully and frequently, to keep them 
free from weeds, and as thrifty as possible, that they may 
gain strength not to sufi'erfrom the first winter: the second 
spring after sowing, they will be in a good condition for 
gathering, and feeding the worms ; nay, any person, who 
should feel desirous of driving the business, might begin to 
use them the first spring after sowing, and keep one sowing 
in reserve, not to be used until the third year, when the 
plants, being better rooted, and stronger, could bear, without 
any ill consequences, to be cut down near the ground, and 
would soon be up again for a second crop ; it w^ould be 
desirable to transplant some of the young trees into edge 
rows, placing them at the distance of two feet apart, and 
suffering them to grow in the manner of bushes, v/hich 
would be convenient for gathering the leaves ; some also 
should be transplanted to grow singly with a butt ; such 
trees (as mentioned before) will give the best and most 
substantial food ; thus the drills of seedlings would give the 
earliest and tenderest food for the little worms at their birth, 
the leaves of the edge-rows would afford a food next in 
substance, suitable after the second shedding, and the 
eaves of the mature standard trees would, after the fourth 
shedding, offer to their voraciousness that substantial food, 
which is very requisite, at that time, to satisfy them, and tc 



2S0 



ensure a rich and heavy crop ; choosing for the whole plan* 
tation a piece of sheltered, high ground, sweet and well 
laid to the sun, and planting ridges, hedges, and trees, in 
such a manner as will give to all the uninterrupted benefit 
of the light and heat of the sun. 

Fully aware of the importance of the object we have 
presented to the attention of the community, we cannot 
leave it, without making a concluding appeal to the intelli- 
gence and energy of our countrymen, not to suffer any de- 
lay to take place in setting their hands to a work so prom- 
ising of results the most favourable to our comforts, and for 
our welfare : the first step is within the farmer's immediate 
department, to sow the mulberry-seed, and rear the young 
trees ; and after two years of attendance, the silk raising 
may commence in good earnest, and will become a healthy 
and pleasant business for children and young women. This 
rich crop will require but two months' care to secure it, and, 
vvb^^'i the business shall flourish on a large scale, which we 
#na;' anticipate as probable within a short period, the rais- 
in:^ of the cocoons will become a distinct occupation for 
farmers' familie^J ; the winding and reeling of them, most 
probably, will be carried on as a distinct and separate 
branch of industry ; this is actually the case in all the silk- 
growing countries, where the cocoons are carried to the 
public markets, and sold for ready cash to those who keep 
filatures, where they v/ind and reel them. 

Great advantages will accrue to the younger members of 
farmers' families, in cultivating so pleasant and profitable an 
employment at home : it will offer to many young women 
a choice between home and the factories, and a resource 
in case the liberal encouragement given to manufactures 
should eventually prove the cause of business being over- 
done; it will also offer valuable resources for the pauper 
establishments, where the old and infirm, under a discreet 
and judicious government, may be made to provide tliem^ 
selves a comfortable support. If we take a retrospective 
view of the affairs of mankind, since the times of early 
record, we find that the riches and the prosperity resulting 
from commerce and navigation, or from a system of exten- 
sive manufactuies, however brilliant, are comparatively of 
short and uncertain duration ; the changes of views and 
systems of a government at home, the changes of policy 
among foreign nations, render the whole fabric subject to 
many sudden and unforeseen vicissitudes, and dependent 
upon the results of relations abroad, and of the compromise 



SKIRRET. 



281 



of jarring interests at home, setting at defiance, in the 
course of time, the subtle calculations of the most accom- 
plished statesman ; but the prosperity which is founded upon 
a perfected agriculture, that combines with intelligence the 
abilities of the soil and climate, so as to naturalize, by in- 
dustry, rich crops of products, unknown to its original situ- 
ation, is a prosperity not liable to changes ; it becomes in- 
herent and lasting. Of the great results of a rich cultiva- 
tion upon the circumstances and ability of a people, Italy 
affords a convincing illustration : although groaning under 
bigotry and priestcratt, without foreign commerce, and with- 
out foreign navigation, yet, at various periods, three or four 
years of peace, with good crops of silk and oil, (silk is the 
richest,) have filled the country again with competence, 
after the dreadful devastations of war. 

There is a certain order in society, the members of which, 
although not united by the bonds of corporate privileges, 
although unknown to, and unacquainted with, each other, 
yet move on with a steady and harmonious step to one com- 
mon end, — the prosperity of their country, the welfare of all 
its inhabitants ; to them, the powerful Bearers of Light, re- 
spectfully, we would recommend the consideration of the 
object of these lines, and if their judgment joins in accord- 
ance with our own, we invite them to endeavour to accel- 
erate its completion, and to save it from a lingering course 
through one or two generations. The knowledge of the 
rearing of silk was imparted, in the course of about six 
hundred years, by Greece to neighbouring Italy, and in about 
three hundred and forty years more, it was communicated 
across the line between Italy and France ; thus the progress 
was slow indeed ; but such are the miserable results of ig- 
norance and bad policy. 

We would repeat, that the first step is to prepare an 
abundance of food for the silk-worms by stocking our 
warm, light lands with white mulberry-trees ; accordingly, 
wherever there are now white mulberry-trees bearing fruit, 
the fruit should be carefully collected, when fully ripe, and 
the seed should be v/ashed out, dried, and prenerved ; it 
v/ill be much vv anted, and it is both the duty and the inter- 
est of the owners not to suffer even the smallest part to go 
to waste. 

SKIRRET. — Slum sisanim. — "The skinet is a perennial 
tap-rooted plant, a native of China. The lower leaves are 
pinnated, and the stem rises about a foot higl., terminated 
by an umbel of w^hite flowers, in July and August. The 
24 * 



282 



SPINACH, OR SPINAGE 



root is composed of fleshy tubers, about the size of the lit* 
tie finger, and joined together at the crown or head : they 
were formerly much esteemed in cookery. In the north of 
Scotland, the plant is cultivated under the name of crwm- 
moch 

" Culture,-— Hhh plant grows freely in a lightish soil, 
moderately good. It is propagated both from seed, and by 
offsets of established roots. The better method is, to raise 
seedlings, to have the root in perfection, young and tender. 

" By seed, — ' Sow between the 21st of March and the 
15th of April; a fortnight later, rather than any earlier, for 
a full crop, as plants raised forward in spring are apt to start 
for seed in summer. Sow on an open compartment of light 
ground, in small drills eight inches apart. When the plants 
are one or two inches high, thin them to five or six inches 
asunder. They will enlarge in growth till the end of au- 
tumn ; but before the roots are full grown, in August, Sep- 
tember, or October, some may be taken up for consumption 
as wanted : those left to reach maturity will continue good 
for use throughout winter, and in spring, till the stems run.' 

" By slips. — ' Having some plants of last year's rais- 
ing, furnished with root-offsets, slip them off ; taking only 
the young outward slips, and not leaving any of the larger 
old roots adhering to the detached offsets ; which plant by 
dibble, in rows from six to nine inches asunder. They 
will soon strike, and enlarge, and divide into offsets ; which, 
as well as the main roots, are eatable, and come in for use 
in proper season.' 

" To save seed, — Leave some old plants in the spring ; 
they will shoot up stalks, and ripen seed in autumn." — Lou- 
don, 

" Use. — The tubers are boiled, served up with butter, 
and are declared by Worlidge, in 1682, to be 'the sweet- 
est, whitest, and most pleasant of roots.' " — Loudon. The 
common skirret has an agreeable aromatic flavour, and 
abounds with saccharine particles : hence it has been con- 
jectured that sugar might be advantageously extracted from 
the root ; and M. Margraff states, that he obtained one ounce 
and a half of pure sugar from half a pound of this vegetar 
ble. In a medicinal view, it possesses diuretic properties, 
and is in a slight degree stimulant. — Dom. Encyc, 

SPINACH, or SVm AGE,— Spinacia oleracea,— The 
common spinage is an annual plant, but it is not known of 
',^^hat country it is a native. The leaves are ^ large, the 
stems hollow, branching, and, when allowed to produce 



SPINACH, OR SPINAGE. 



^83 



flowers, rising from two to three feet higli. The, male and 
female llowers are produced on different plants : the former 
come in long terminal spikes ; the latter in clusters, close 
to the stalk at every joint. 

Varieties. — -Russell's Catalogue contains the follow- 
ing :— 



Round-lfeaved, Of sximmer ; 
Prickly, or fall 5 

Eng-lish patience dock, rumex patien- 
tia, {for earhj greens ;) 



Holland or lamb's quarter 5 
New Zealand; tetragana expansisj [a 
valuable new sort.) 



Times of sowing.—'^ The round is sown in April — the 
others from August to September. The prickly is sown in 
August and September for early spring greens." — RusseWs 
Catalogue. 

Soil and situation. — As the excellence of spinaceous plants 
consists in the succulency of the leaves, almost every thing 
depends on giving them a rich soil, stirring it frequently^ 
and supplying water in dry seasons. The space they occu- 
py in the garden is not considerable, say a thirtieth part ; 
more especially as some of them, the common spinage for 
example, often come in as a temporary crop between rows 
of peas or beans, or among cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. 

Seed and process in sowing. — " When raised by itself, 
spinage is generally sown broad-cast, and two ounces will 
sow a bed four feet and a half by thirty feet ; but in drills, 
^ne ounce will sow the same space. In drills it is easier 
to v/eed and gather : let the drills be from nine to twelve 
inches apart. Beds four feet wide, with small alleys, are 
convenient of access. Let the ground be thoroiighly dug. 
Whether broad-cast or in drills, sow thinly, and rake or 
earth in ubout an inch deep. 

Subsequent culture.—^' When the plants are up, showing 
leaves about an inch broad, clear them from weeds, either 
by hand or small hoeing, and thin the plants, where crowd- 
ed, (especially the broad-cast crops,) to three inches apart ; 
and, when advanced in growth, every other may be cut out 
for use, increasing the distance to about six inches, that 
the remainder may grow stocky, with large spreading 
leaves. The plants of the early and succession crops at- 
tain proper growth for gathering in April, May and June, 
When the leaves are from two to five inches in breadth, 
cut the plants clean out to the bottom, or sometimes cut 
only the largest leaves. But as soon as there is any ap- 
pearance of their running to seed, thev may be drawn out 
clean as wanted," 



To save seed. — " To obtain seed of the round-leaved, 
leave a sufficient quantity of established plants in April, 
May, or June, to run up in stalks ; or transplant in autumn 
some of the spring-sown which have not run. To save 
seed of the triangular spinage, transplant, in March, some 
good strong plants, of the winter crop. For large supplies, 
a portion of each may be sown in February, or the first 
fortnight of March, to stand wdiolly for seeding. Sow each 
sort separate. Respecting both sides, observe that they 
are of the class Dmcia^ the male and female flow^ers growl- 
ing separately, on two distinct plants. When the plants 
are flowering for seed, the cultivator should examine wheth- 
er the male plants, distinguishable by the abundant farina 
upon the blossoms, stand crowded or numerous to excess ; 
in which case he should pull up the superfluous plants, 
leaving a competency for fertilizing the female blossoms, 
which else -would prove abortive. And when the female 
blossoms are set, it is best to dispose of all the male plants, 
drawing them by hand; which will give more room to 
the females to grov/ and perfect their seed. The plants re 
jected may be profitably given to young pigs. The seed 
ripens in July and August." — Ahercromhie, 

Use. — " The leaves are used in soups, or boiled alone, and 
mashed, and served up wdth gravies, butter, and hard-boiled 
eggs. The leaves may be obtained from sowings in the open 
ground at most seasons of the year, but chiefly in spring, 
w^hen they are largest and most succulent." — Loudon. 
" According to the opinion of French physicians, this plant 
is not only food, but physic, and is hence emphatically 
called ' Le balai de Pestomac^ — the broom of the stomach 
— sweeping and deterging every hole and corner of that 
organ, without giving pain, or in any degree interrupting 
the ordinary avocations of the persons employing it." — 
Armstrong. 

SQUASH. — Cucurbita melo pepo. — The squash rs a 
species of the cucurbita^ and seems to be the link which 
connects the melon and pumpkin. 

The varieties mentioned in Russell's Catalogue are — 



Eariy bush summer ; 
Long crook-neck, or bell 5 
Vegetable marrow 5 
Acorn j 



Commodore Valparaiso, {grows large^ 

and is highly esteemed ;) 
Canada crook-neck; {small, and of 

superior quality.) 



" Squashes, of every kind, may be cultivated as directed 
for cucumbers and melons — should be sown at the same 
time, and at similar distances, with this difference, that two 



STRAWBElUtY. 285 

plants of these wili be plenty for each hill, and that they 
are easier pleased with soil and preparation than the oth- 
ers, "—ilf'ilfate. 

Lse. — The squash is applicable to all the uses of the 
pumpkin^ and, for many purposes, is superior to that vege- 
table. 

STRAWBERRY.— i^mt/aria.— The substance of the 
following article was written for this work, at the particular 
request of its compiler, by a gentleman of Boston, whose 
success, as a practical, is equal to his skill as a scientif- 
ic horticulturist ; and whose liberality in imparting his 
knowledge, as well as the results of its successful applica- 
tion in introducing excellent varieties of fruits, merits the 
thanks of the community. 

Varieties. —Evevj year is producing new varieties of this 
as well as almost all other fruits, from the care and attention 
which are bestowed on them by the scientific cultivators 
of Europe, among whom, at the present day, Mr. Knight, 
the president of the London Horticultural Society, seems 
to take the lead. 

Society owes much to these gentlemen, and they are 
constantly receiving the reward of their labours from the 
many and continued testimonies of approbation, which their 
success calls forth. But their chief gratification is derived 
from the pursuit itself, which, above all others, is calculat- 
ed soothe and tranquillize the mind, and to lead men to 
^' look through Nature up to Nature's God." 

The kinds most esteemed in England are the pine, im- 
perial, Bostock, Surinam, Bath scarlet, Downton, rose- 
berry, Hudson Bay, large scarlet, musk hautbois, round 
hautbois, and flat hautbois. 

In France, the Bath scarlet is of long standing, and 
much esteemed. The white, the Alpine, or monthly, and 
the Chili, are also favourites. 

The Chili is a shy bearer, but very large when it comes 
to maturity — is not, I believe, known here : it stands on a 
BtifF, upright, and strong stem, in lieu of a pendulous one, 
iike the Hudson. 

The Downton is, however, I believe, a larger strawberry, 
and is uncommonly high flavoured. There are other new 
varieties very large, of which I know nothing. The form 
of the Downton is various ; many of them are shaped like 
a cock's comb, which name it has obtained in some horti- 
cultural works. It was raised from seed by Mr. Knight, 



286 



STRAWBERRY. 



at Downton, the name of his estate, and is a very good 
bearer. 

The roseherry is, in point of fiavonr, surpassed by no 
cultivated strawberry I have seen. It resembles, in form 
and flavour, the Alpine, but is a better bearer. This last. 

The Alpine^ is a monthly strawberry ; it continues in 
bearing from June until Gciooer in this climate — is like the 
wood-strawberry in form and flavour, but is a shy bearer. 

The scarlets are all large and fine fruit; the largest va- 
riety are fine flavoured and very early. They are not very 
great bearers, but should be cultivated as valuable varieties^ 
as well as for their beauty and excellent qualities. 

The haiithois is the favourite English strawberry. It is 
totally dilTerent from what is commonly called the hautbois 
in this country. The flat hautbois grows generally on the 
top of the vines — is brown, and greenish w^hite when ripe 
— fine flavoured, pretty good bearer, but difficult to detach 
from its stalk. 

The round hmtboh is of a dark purple when ripe — 15 
somewhat in form like the common red strawberry, but 
larger ; and the 

Musk hauihois is like the preceding — a shy bearer, but 
very delicious. 

The wood-strawhernj is far before any other in point of fla- 
vaur, and, if transplanted into gardens, may for two or three 
years ansv/er very well ; and if not too highly manured, 
preserve their flavour and increase their size. But new 
plants must be obtained, every two or three years, from the 
woods, to make new plantations, or they will degenerate. 

Soil and manure. — The soil proper for this last mentioned 
variety, as well as all others, is light, warm, and gravelly ; 
and the manure to be applied should be exckisively vegeta- 
ble, and not animal manure. The usual practice is to ma- 
nure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase 
the size and quantity of fruit ; but, in doing this, the fla- 
vour of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness 
of the soil. Besides, high manuring produces strong vines 
and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in 
«mall quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a 
compost heap, will make better manure for strawberries 
than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which 
bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to 
its proper size, the soil and situation in which they are 
placed must not be too dry. 



STRAWBERRY. 



287 



Propagation, — The usual time for transplanting straw- 
berry-plants is August. That time is chosen because they 
have then done bearing, and have made offsets, if the sea- 
son has been favourable, of strong plants, set from their 
runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some 
fruit the next summer. But, if you can get good vigorous 
plants in May of the preceding season, I prefer to plant 
then, as it saves a year, nearly, the plants being ready to 
bear abundantly the next year. 

Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trim- 
ming the plants v/hen they are put out. Some cut off all 
the old leaves, and preserve only the naissant leaves in the 
centre of the plant. Others take off' the dead or decayed 
leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on 
the plant. This last plan is highly recommended by the 
Abbe Rozier, but, so far as my experience goes, I have 
found the first mentioned course the best. Many people 
cut the roots in before they put them into the ground : all 
dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When 
the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, 
and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the 
plants are strong, put but one to form the stools ; if weak, 
put two. 

As regards the distance at which plants should be set, 
cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is 
found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart in 
rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to 
form a matted bed of eighteen inches or two feet wide, 
with a foot-path of a foot vvdde between them. But the 
larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools in beds 
four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or 
more between the beds. In these beds the plants should 
be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both 
ways, taking care to set them in quincuncial order, and 
to keep them from running together. 

The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation 
is, that the fruit is exposed to be injured by lying on the 
ground, where it is bruised and covered with dirt every 
time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little 
care. In some parts of Europe, where moss is plenty, it 
is collected and put round the stools, so as to prevent the 
fruit from lying on the ground, and at the same time to 
prevent the moisture round the plant from evaporat- 
ing. 

In some places, where moss is not to be got, straw is used 



288. 



SUNFLOWER. 



for the same purpose ; hence the English name of straw- 
berry.* But I think that leaves of trees that have been 
collected in the spring, and kept under cover, are better 
than either, and particularly the oak-leaf ; because, when 
they are no longer wanted to protect the fruit, and keep 
the moisture in the ground, they can be dug in round the 
stools, vihere they serve as most excellent manure for this 
delicious fruit. 

The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds. 
Knight, in making experiments, with a view of ascer- 
taining whether most of the sorts would not breed togeth- 
er indiscriminately, raised above four hundred varieties, 
" some very bad, but the greater part tolerably good, and a 
few very excellent.^' The fruit of above a dozen sorts was 
sent to the Horticultural Society [in London] in August, 
1818, and found of various degrees of excellence. The 
seeds, if sown immediately after gathering, will produce 
plants which will come into bearing the following year.— 
Loudon. 

" Use. — The fruit is fragrant, (w^hence fragaria^) deli- 
cious, and universally esteemed. It consists almost entirely 
of matter soluble in the stomach, and neither there nor 
when laid in heaps, and left to rot^ does it undergo the ace- 
tous fermentation. Hence it is very nourishing, and mnj 
be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. ' In ad- 
dition to its grateful flavour, the subacid juice has a cooling' 
quality, particularly acceptable in summer. Eaten either 
alone, or with sugar and cream, there are few constitutions 
with which strawberries, even when taken in large quanti- 
ties, are found to disagree. Further, they have properties 
which render them, in most conditions of the animal frame, 
positively salutary ; and physicians concur in placing them 
in their small catalogue of pleasant remedies. They dis- 
solve the tartareous incrustations of the teeth. They 
promote perspiration. Persons aiflicted with the gout have 
found relief from using them very largely ; so have patients 
in cases of the stone ; and Hoffman states, that he has 
known consumptive people cured by them. The bark of 
the root is astringent.' — Ahercrombie.'^'^ — Loudon. 

SUNFLOWER. — Helianthus annuus. — This plant is a 
native of South America, but naturalized and become com- 



* This name is common in all the northern countries, while in France, and 
countries south, it is said they take their name from their flavour, or the botani- 
k q\ name fragaria. 



TANSY TARRAGON. TEASEL. 



289 



mon iu the United States. It is easily propagated in any 
common soil, either by sowing the seeds, or by slips or off- 
sets from the roots. 

From a paper on the subject of sunflower-oil, in the first 
voL of Tram, Amer, Phil. Society^ it appears that one bush- 
el of seed yields three quarts of oil ; and that this quantity 
of seed is produced from one hundred plants, set about 
three feet apart, in the same manner that Indian corn is 
planted. The oil is thin, clear, and an agreeable taste. 

The process for expressing the oil is the same as that of 
making linseed-oiL 

TANSY. — Tanacetum vvlgare* — Tansy is a perennial 
plant, which grows without cultivation in Great Britain and 
in some parts of the United States. 

Culture, — Tansy may be propagated in spring or autumn 
by rooted slips, or by dividing the roots into several sets : 
plant them in any compartment of the kitchen or physic 
garden, from twelve to eighteen inches asunder. The 
plant continues for several years, producing abundant tufts 
of leaves annually. As they run np in strong stalks in 
summer, these should be cut down to encourage a pro- 
duction of young leaves below on the stem. To have 
young tansy in "winter, plant some roots either in a hot- 
bed, or in pots placed therein, or in a pinery, or forcing 
house, at any time from November to March. — Ahercrmnhie, 

Use, — " The young leaves are shredded down, and em- 
ployed to give colour and flavour to puddings ; they are 
also used in omelets and other cakes, and w^ere formerly in 
much repute as a vermifug"T3." — Loudon, 

T ARR AGO N. — Artemisia dracunculus, — Culture. — This 
is a perennial plant, which may be propagated from seed, 
or from slips or offsets, in the same manner that tansy, 
mint, &c. are cultivated. 

Use. — " Tarragon is frequently used in salads, especially 
by the French, to correct the coldness of other herbs. 
The leaves make an excellent pickle : they have a fragrant 
smell and aromatic taste. The use of them in Persia has 
ever been general, at meals, to create an appetite. The 
famous vinegar of Maille, in France, ow^es its superior fla-, - 
vour to this plant, which is now common in Pennsylvania." 
— Dr. Mease. 

TEASEL. — Dipsacus. — The teasel or Ailler's thistle is 
an herbaceous biennial, growing from four to six feet high, 
prickly or rough in the stem and leaves, and terminating Iq 
rough, burr-like heads of flowers. 
25 



290 



THYME. 



Propagation and culture. — This plant is propagated by 
sowing the seeds either in March or April, upon a soil that 
has been well ploughed, and it is observed that good wheat- 
land is well adapted for the production of teasels. The 
ground being ploughed and made fine, from one peck to 
two of seed is generally sown upon an acre, and harrow^ 
ed in with a light harrow. When the plants are up, hoe 
them in the same manner as practised for turnips, thinning 
out the plants from time to time, till eventually they are left 
about a foot apart. They should be kept clear from weeds, 
and the second year after sowing, the plants will shoot up 
stalks with heads, which are collected in August, as soon as 
they begin to turn brov^n. They are then exposed daily to 
the sun till they become perfectly dry, care being taken 
to protect them from rain. They are to be collected as 
they turn brown and ripen, and not all at once. 

tfse, — This plant is cultivated in great quantities, in the 
west of England, for raising the nap on woollen cloths, by 
means of the crooked awns or chaffs upon the heads ; which 
in the wild sort are said to be less hooked. For this pur- 
pose they are fixed round the circumference of a cylinder, 
which is made to turn round, and the cloth is held against 
them. For a more detailed account of the culture of this 
plant, see Encyc. of Agr, p. 852, N, E, FarmeVj vol. vi. 
^ pp. 307, 322. 

THYME. — Thymus vulgaris. — There are, according to 
Loudon, two species of thyme, cultivated for culinary pur- 
poses, the CGmmon and the lemon thyme. 

Common or garden thyme is a native of Spain and Italy. 
Of this there are two varieties, the broad and the narrow- 
leaved, besides the variegated, grown for ornament. 

Lemon thyme — T. citriodoriis — is a very lo^v evergreen 
shrub, trailing, and seldom rising above four or six inches in 
height. It is distinguished by its strong smell of lemons. 

Culture. — The plant is best raised from seed. Sow as 
early in the spring as the season will permit, in a bed or 
border of light, fine earth, ehher broad-cast, scattered thin, 
and raked in iiglitly, or in small, shallow drills, six inches 
asunder. The after-culture is simple, and similar to that of 
^ther sweet herbs, such as marjoram, sage, &c. " In soils 
which are cold, stiff, or moist, it does not thrive ; its 
branches become ragged, its leaves few, and its flowers, and 
their peculiar aroma, feeble and faded." — Armstrong. 

Use. — "The young leaves and tops are used in soups, 
siu flings, and sauces. For these purposes, the broad-leaved 



TOMATO. TURNIP. 291 

common is generally preferred ; but the Havcur of the yel- 
low is much liked in peculiar dishes,*' — Loudon. '''All 
the parts of this plant, but particularly the calyx of its 
flower, yields an essential oil, yellow and odorous, and 
highly charged with camphor. In the kitchen, it is used 
as an ingredient in sauces and stuffings, and in what are 
technically called jbrce^^ meats, — Armstrong. 

TOM AT 0,—Solanu7n liKopcrsicum. — '' This plant is of 
llie same family with the potato, and, like it, is a native of 
Southern America, It has several species, two of which 
fall under our notice as garden vegetables, and are distin- 
guished from each other only bj a difference of size. The 
smaller is held to be the parent plant, and has the advan- 
tage of ripening sooner, and better resisting cold weather. 
To have an early crop, sow the seeds in a dry and warm 
soil, and sheltered situation, in October, and cover the bed 
with straw, or stable-litter, during the winter. For sum- 
mer and fall use, sow again in May, and water freely. If 
the soil and situation be favourable, and the culture proper, 
the product will be great. The distance betvv'Cen the plants 
should not be less than two feet'^ — Armstrong. 

Use. — " When ripe, the fruity which has an acid ilavour, 
is put into soups and sauces, and the juice is preserved for 
winter use, like ketchup ; it is also used in confectionary, 
as a presefve, and, when green, as a pickle. Though a 
good deal used in England, in soups, and as a principal in- 
gredient in a well knovv^i sauce for mutton, yet our estim.a- 
tion and uses of the fruit are nothiug to those of the French 
and Italians, and especially the IcdXQv. ear Rome and 
Naples, whole fields are <!oyered wiili it ; and sca^rcely a 
dinner is served up, in which it does not, in some way or 
other, form a part." — Loudon. 

TURNIP. — Brassica rapa.—HvityselVs Catalogue con- 
tains the following varielies : 



EdLrly white Botch ^ 
Early garden sUme ; 
While flat^ or globe ; 
Green round 5 
Red round 5 
Swan's eg"g ; 
Large English Norfolk , 
Long- tankard, or Hanover ; 



Long- j-ellow Frencli ; 
Yellow Dutcii ; 
Yellow Maltese; 
Yeiiow Aberdeen-; 
Yellowstone; 

Yellov/ 8->vedish, Russia, or rata 

bag-a; 
Dedhain. 



The first three sorts are fittest for early, first succession, 
and main crops. The French turrnp, according to Loudon, 
is of excellent flavour, and is in high repute in France, Ger- 
many, and Holland. Tlie Swedish, for its large size and 



292 



TURNIP. 



hardy nature, is extensively cultivated in fields for cattle , 
it is also occasionally raised in gardens for the table, to use 
in vvdnter and spring. 

Seed estimate. — For a seed-bed four feet and a half by 
twenty-four, the plaiits to remain and be thinoed to seven- 
inches' distance, half an ounce. 

Tiine of sowing, — Make iirst a small sowing of some of 
the early sorts, in the last fortnight of Ma*rch or the first days 
of April, for turnips in May and June ; but, as these will 
run to seed the same season, make a larger sowing about 
the middle of April. The first considerable sowing may be 
about the middle or towards the end of May, for roots to 
draw young about the end of June, and in full growth in 
July and August. The principal sowing should be about 
the middle of July. " Doing it on a set day is ridiculous ; 
for a time should be chosen when the ground has the right 
degree of moisture to make the seed vegetate; and if this 
should happen a week earlier or a fortnight later than the 
usual time, it need not be regretted ; but the opportunity 
ought to be embraced.'' — Abercrombie, They may be sown 
to advantage in New England as late as the first week in 
August; and those w^hich are put into the ground so late 
will be less liable to be injured by insects than when sown 
earlier. 

Soil and situation. — Sand or gravel, with a mixture of 
loam, produce the sweetest and best flavoured roots. It 
should be made fine, but not too rich, lest the turnips be 
rank and ill tasted. Ground which has been newly cleared 
from the forest yields the largest and sweetest roots ; and 
on such spots there is least danger from insects. " Next 
to new land, swarded ground is to be chosen for a crop of 
turnips ; and the way to prepare it is, to plough it pretty 
deep in the spring, and fold it by turning in the stock for a 
good number of nights ; for there is scarcely any of 
fields sufficiently rich to produce turnips without manuring; 
and folding hitherto appears to be the best method of en- 
riching the ground for this purpose. It should be well 
harrowed as often as once a week, while the folding is con- 
tinued, to mix the excrements of the cattle with the soiL'^ 
— Deane. 

Process m sowing^ and precautions against the fly, — " Let 
the ground be well broken by regular digging, and neatly 
levelled to receive the seed. Procure bright, well dried 
seed. At a season when the turnip-fly is not apprehended, 
the seed may be put into the ground without any prepara- 



TURNIP. 



293 



tion, either aloRe or mixed with a little sand ; but in the 
hot weather of sismmer, it is advisable to use some cheap 
and effectuai preventive of the fly. It appears from a trial 
of Knight, at the suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy, that 
lime slaked witii urine, and mixed with a treble quantity 
of soot, if sprinkled in with the seed at the time of sowing, 
will protect the seeds 8.nd germs from the ravages of this 
pernicious insect ; but this antidote cannot be conveniently 
applied unless the sowing be in drills. A yet simpler 
remedy, found by Mean to be perfectly successful, is, to 
steep the seed in sulphur-water, putting an ounce of sul- 
phur to a pint of water, which will be sufficient for soaking 
about three pounds of seed.'- — Abercrombie, 

The method of sowing is either broad-cast or in drills. 
In the former mode, Abercrombie directs to allow half an 
ounce of seed for every one hundred square feet. Deane 
cays, the quantity of seed for an acre is never less than one 
pound — more frequently a pound and a half, and sometimes 
two. In sowing by broad-cast, the seed maybe covered by 
drawing a " light harrow backward, that is, wrong end 
foremost, to prevent the tines, v/hich are generally set some- 
what pointed forward, from tearing up the sods, and bury- 
ing the seed too deep." If sowed in rows, the drills may 
be an inch deep, and tw^elve or fifteen inches asunder. 

Subsequent culture, — As soon as the plants have rough 
leaves, about an inch broad, hoe and thin them to six or 
eight inches' distance, cutting up all weeds. As the tur- 
nips increase in the root, a part may be drawn young, by 
progressive thinnings, so as to leave those designed to reach 
a full size ultimately ten or twelve inches apart. 

Taking and presermng the crop, — In England they feed 
the turnips off the g-^-ound with sheep, or draw tliem up' for 
neat cattle, through the winter, as they are wanted ; but, 
in this country, they must be harvested in autumn, about 
the end of October, or even earlier in some seasons and 
jplaces, and stored and saved, as directed for preserving 
other roots. See page 50. 

To save seed, — Som.e of the best roots of the middling 
size should be planted early in the spring, in a good spot, 
free from shade. Thev should be in rows, eio-hteen inches 
asunder, and the ground must oe kept clear of weeds till 
the seed is ripe. Stakes and laths may be needful round 
the outside, to keep the branches from falling to the ground 
before the seed is fully ripe." — Deane. It is preferable, 
however, to procure turnip-seed, as indeed that of most 
25 * 



5294 



VINE. 



other \regetableSj from the regular seedsmen ; as tBe seed 
farmers have opportunities of keeping the sorts distinct^ 
which cannot be within the precincts of a walied garden.'^ 
— Loudon, 

Use. — The common culinary uses of the turnioj 
boiled, mashed, &:c., are too well knov/n to need any notice. 
We shall mention some uses not so common. 

For feeding horses. — These, when fed on turnips, are 
induced to eat the barn-chaff, and other dry food, with a 
good appetite — aie kept healthy, and will work without 
com. 

For feeding cows.~To make sweet and well tasted but- 
ter from the milk of cows fed on turnips, let the iisiik ves- 
sels be kept constantly cleans and well scalded with boiling" 
water, before using. When the milk is brought into the 
dairy, to every eight quarts mix one quart of boiling water; 
then put up the milk into the bowl to stand for cream. 

" As a substitute for bread. — When the dearness of all sorts 
of corn occasioned many poor people in Essex [England] 
to make bread of turnips, thej took the peeled roots, and 
boiled them in water till they were soft ; then, strongly 
pressing out their juices, they mixed them with their v/eight 
of wheat-meal ; and adding salt, yeast, and warm water, 
they kneaded it up as other paste ; v/hich, having lain a 
little while to ferment, they ordered and baked as common 
bread." — Gleanings in Hashandrij. 

Y\WEt,— Vitis, — Many gentlemen in this neiohbour- 
hood have given considerable attention to the cultivatioii 
of grapes in the open air upon open trellises, and some 
have succeeded remarkably well, although they have had 
to contend with the many difficulties which that delicate 
and delicious fruit is subject to in this climate. 

Having given some personal attention to this fruit for 
several years, I am satisfied that it can be raised in great 
perfection, and with little trouble to the cultivator, if he set- 
out right in the first instance, and follow up the system 
prescribed with attention and oare. 

Although most men, who have any knowledge in horti- 
cultoe, know more or less respecting the mode of cultivat- 
ing this plant, yet there are many new beginners, wha 
may collect some hints from these notes, which may aid 
them in the outset ; and many gentlemen, who have been 
long in the habit of raising grapes in their gardens, may ob- 
tain some information as to the means of preserving the 
plants from the destructive insect which has of i**^^? years^ 



attacked the vines, and destroyed the promise of their early 
growth and the fair appearance of their fruit. 

The best treatises on the subject of raising grape-vines 
recommend planting the cuttings in pots ; but in this country 
it is entirely unnecessary, as the plants may be easily raised 
in the open grounds with little trouble and no expense ; and 
if we can add to our collection of fine fruits one, which, in 
sickness as well as in health, is the most refreshing and 
nutritive of any that we possess, with little expense, and 
even with profit to the cultivator, we shall do a great good. 

The best mode of raising the plants is by cuttings taken 
from the vines at the fall pruning, and preserved in earth 
till spring. These may be made either of one eye or bud, 
or of four or five, attached to a small portion of the two 
years' old wood, forming a cutting in the shape of a small 
mallet 

The 1st year. — They may be raised in a small nursery- 
bed, prepared of a good light soil — set in the ground six 
inches distant from each other, with the rows wide enough 
apart to permit them to be weeded v/ith a narrow hoe ; or, 
they may be put, in the first instance, where they are to be 
reared, and left to grow, at the distan<je of five, six, or seven 
feet, or more, according to the wishes of the cultivator. Jji 
this latter case there should be three cuttings put into each 
spot, six inches apart, to ensure the setting of one. When 
this is ascertained with certainty, the two weakest may be 
(vithdrawn, leaving the best of the three to grow. If the 
cuttings be of one eye each, they should be from the last 
year's growth, and a small piece of the branch, an inch long, 
should be left attached to the bud, and extending half an 
inch on each side of it. These should be planted twa 
inches below the surface, with the bud uppermost, and a 
small stake placed by the side of them, that they may not 
be disturbed. If the cuttings are of several eyes, th('y 
should be laid in the ground sloping, leaving one eye level 
with, or only just above, the surface. They should be keot 
moist, but not wet, as this will rot them. A spot which 
receives the morning sun till eleven o'clock, and not after- 
wards, is the best for a nursery-bed for them ; but, for per- 
manency, they should be planted where they will receive 
the sun longest; and, in this case, they should be shaded at 
noon day until they have entirely put out. One bud only 
should be allowed to push from the cutting the first year ; 
the plant should be kept free from weeds ; the earth kept 
light around it, and as soon as the shoot has attained 



296 



VINE 



strength enough to produce laterals, they should be rubbed 
out, and the shoot tied to a small stake, by which means it 
will gain firmness, and the admission of the sun and air to 
the shoot will prepare it to bear the frost of the fail, and 
prevent its imbibing the moisture which it would oiltiv 
wise be subject to, when covered with earth in the winter. 
By the first of November the shoots may be cut dovv^n to 
two eyes, and by the middle of the month, if it be dry 
weather, they may be covered over with earth, forming a 
slope to cast off the wet and prevent the rains from pene- 
trating — -as the drier the plant is kept during the winter, in 
the better state it will be in, the succeeding spring. 

The 2d year, — The plants should not be uncovered in 
this climate till the middle of April. Those from the nur- 
sery should now be transplanted to the places where they 
are to remain ; a shoot from each eye should be permitted 
to push, but as soon as you have ascertained which of the 
two will be the strongest and the best situated, you will 
preserve that, and rub out the other. The shoot preserved 
you will be careful to tie up to a small stake, as soon as it 
has length enough for this purpose, to prevent its being 
broken by the wind or other casualty. During the summer, 
the laterals from the four or five lowest buds must be rub- 
bed out, and the shoot be carefully protected by being kept 
tied every eight or ten iuches. 

The next fall you may cut this shoot down to two buds, 
(not counting the one in the crotch of the plant between 
the old ai3d new wood,) and cover over as before. 

The Bd year. — You will ailov/ shoots to push from both 
the eyes, and siiifer them to grow, taking care of them as 
recommended above ; but the bud in the crotch must be 
rubbed out. This year you must rub out the laterals from 
the five lowest buds, and nip in the other laterals to one 
eye, so that, if the plant grows luxuriantly, the sap may burst 
from the buds of the laterals, and not from those of the 
main branch, as it would do if the vine was dressed too 
close. Be careful to keep the branches tied up, that they 
may not be broken. In November, cut down the tvio 
branches as follows: the most feeble of the two, to two 
buds, to produce wood branches the succeeding season ; 
and the strongest to three buds, for fruit branches* and 
cover them as usual. 

The 4th year, — If yo-u keep your vines properly dressed, 
you may have your first fruits without injury to your plants. 
After this, the system to be pursued must depend on the 



vine; 



297 



strength of your vines, and this will depend on the goodness 
of the soil and the care you take of your plants. But, as a 
general rule, the following points must be attended to : — 

1. The number and length of your fruit branches must 
always depend on the strength of your plant ; the wood 
branches are always to be cut down to two eyes. 

2. No more branches should be left on the vine than it 
can nourish well and abundantly; this will depend on 
its age, and the soil in which it grows. 

3. The branches should be cut in alternately for wood 
aiMi fruit branches, observing to cut for wood branches as 
low down on the plant as possible, so as to renew your 
wood near the bottom annually. No shoots should be per- 
mitted to grow from the old wood, unless wanted for this 
purpose. 

4. No more shoots should be permitted to grow than can 
be laid in clear, and handsome, and without confusion, on 
the trellis, and so as to admit the sun and air freely among 
the branches. 

5. The laterals should be rubbed out of the wood 
branches six or eight eyes high, and those that are per- 
mitted to remain should be pinched into one bud. The 
laterals on the fruit branches should be rubbed out from the 
insertion of the shoot to the uppermost fruit inclusive, and 
the others pinched in as above. If the shoots are very 
strong, the upper laterals may be allowed to grow, to take 
up a greater portion of the sap ; but this should not be 
done unless there is danger of the eyes bursting in the 
main shoots. Be careful always to keep the shoots tied up 
near their top. 

6. Never leave more than five good eyes on a fruit-bear- 
ing branch, unless your vine is confined to a narrow space, 
and you are obliged to preserve only two or three fruit 
branches ; in this case the length of the branch must cor- 
respond to the nourishment it will receive from the plant. 
Select the roundest and fairest branches for fruit, and the 
lowest and most feeble for wood. The closer the buds are 
together, or the shorter the joints of the branch, the better 
they are for fruit ; these may in general be cut to three, 
four, or five eyes, according to their strength. But in 
vineries covered with glass, where two fruit-bearing 
branches only are left on strong vines, twenty, thirty, and 
forty buds are sometimes left on fruit branches. 

The foregomg rules will be sufiicient for any one to 
build up a vineyard sufficiently large to supply hims<»K. his 



viNi:. 



friends, and the market, with grapes. But, to promote and 
forward their maturity and size, the following course may 
he pursued : — 

The first of July you will be able to see the state of your 
fruit, which will be just formed. At this time select the 
highest fruit branches, and those which have the finest 
appearance of fruit upon them, and perform the following 
operation on the two years' old w^ood, from which these 
branches proceed, taking care not to cut below any of the 
wood branches. 

Take a pruning knife v/ith a smooth edge and hawk's 
bill, and pass it round the branch where the bark is clear 
from knots, cutting deep enough to reach the sap-wood of 
the plant; at a quarter or three eighths of an inch below 
the first cut make another, running parallel with the first ; 
then make a perpendicular cut through this section of the 
bark the same depth, and you may take out the ring of 
bark clear from the branch. This will not prevent the sap 
rishig into the upper part of the branch, but it will prevent 
Mfi lescending below this cut, by which means it will be 
je' ined in, and distributed throughout, the upper part of the 
brt^iich, in a greater portion than it could otherwise be, and 
the branches and fruit will both increase in size much more 
than any of those that are not thus treated, and the matu- 
rity of the fruit will be advanced very much* 

This has been denominated girdling. If the plant is 
very vigorous and the season very favourable, the wound 
"^dll soon be closed, so that it may be necessary to open it 
a second time. This process does not injure the plant, as 
you only girdle the fruit-bearing branches, which you Vv^ould 
in any case cut out at the fal] pruning, to make room for 
the branches which you have been bringing forward to give 
you fruit the succeeding year. This may be kept up from 
year to year, and give you a succession of ripe fruit from 
the first of September to the close of the season. The 
fruit on those branches which are not girdled will ripen the 
latest, of course, but neither these, nor those v/hich have 
been girdled, should be shortened, as is customary on vines 
not thus treated. 

By this practice, which was first suggested in the Trans- 
actions of the Horticultural Society of London a few years 
since, and first brought into use in this country with success 
by the corresponding secretary of the Mass. Agr. Soc. I have 
raised grapes in the open air this year, the bunches of which 
weighed from eight to twenty-eight ounces ; and the ber- 



VINE, 



299 



ries measuring from two to three inches in circumference. 
On one vine which I planted a fevv^ years since — a cutting in 
the spot where it now grows — I had seventy bunches of fine 
chasselas, weighing from eight to eighteen ounces each. 

But the grape-vines have of late years been attacked by 
a small insect which makes its appearance first in June, 
but is most abundant in August. This insect, if left to in- 
crease, destroys the vegetating principle in the leaf, and 
the plant languishes, the fruit mildews, and the labour and 
care of the cultivator are lost. Some gentlemen have aban- 
don cd their vines in consequence of the depredations of 
this liisect, and others, with great labour and expense of 
time, have attempted, but in vain, to destroy them with al- 
kalies and tobacco-juice. This has, to be sure, operated to 
check them partially, but not effectually. To remedy this 
evil, you have only to make a small, light frame, twelve or 
fourteen feet long, in the form of a soldier's tent, but 
with hinges of leather where the top joins, so that this tent 
may be shut up or opened at the bottom to any width you 
may require, according to the height of your trellis. This 
light frame, which should be made of slats of boards from 
one to two inches broad, may be covered with an old sail, 
or some cheap glazed cotton cloth, which will stop the 
smoke, leaving cloth enough loose at each end to close 
over, and prevent the smoke from escaping when the tent 
is spread over the trellis. 

A few tobacco-stalks, moistened and put on some coals 
in a pan, will be sufficient to smoke the vines thoroughly; 
and, as the tent is easily moved along the trellis on some 
small w^heels, one man may, in a few hours, extirpate this 
enemy of the vineyard. Vines that are already attacked by 
this insect to any great degree should be smoked in June, 
July, and twice in August, or oftener, if you find the insect is 
not completely destroyed. 

The insects are first seen on the under part of the leaf, 
vv^ithout wings — very active, but easily destroyed if touched. 
They afterwards assume the winged state, when it is very 
difficult to get at them, as they fly off on the vines being 
touched. They are yellow, striped with brown across the 
back. The moment the smoke ascends, the winged in- 
sects quit the leas es, and fall to the ground dead or alive ; 
the young ones perish, but the older ones will revive if not 
destroyed in their torpid state. To effect this, you have 
only to cover the ground under the tent with apiece of wet 
cloth before you beghi to smoke, to which they adhere un* 



VINE. 



til the tent is removedj and tliey are revived by the atmos- 
pheric air ; to prevent which you will roll, or twst, the 
cloth each time that you remove the smoke-house, or tent, 
and replace it again each time before you smoke, by which 
means they will be effectually destroyed. This simple and 
cheap operation will keep your vines clear of this trouble- 
some and destructive insect, and you may, if the season be 
warm, ensure a good harvest; if otherwise, you will be 
sure, if the vines be girdled, to ripen a portion of yoi^ 
fruit, at least. 



CALENDARIAL INDEX. 



The object of this Calendar is little more than to give brief intimations of 
work to be performed in a warden, together with some approximation to the 
time of year m which it should be accomplished. The figures refer to the pages 
in which further directions may be found relative to the operations adverted 
to. These directions are intended for the New England States, or about the 
latitude 42<^ N. and the vicinity, or a small elevation above the sea. 

Allowance should be made for elevation of site, as well as for situation north 
or south of that degree. But it is not possible, perhaps, to state what that al- 
lowance should be with any approach to precision. The nature of the soil, the 
aspect, the exposure, the forwardness or backwardness, or what may be styled 
the general character of the season, are all to be regarded 5 and require the ex- 
ercise of a sound discretion in the cultivator, not to be restricted by general 
rules, which are not liable to too many exceptions to be noted in this work. 



JANUARY. 

Throughout New England the temperature of the climate is such as to ex- 
clude the cultivator from performing" most of the operations of tillage or horti- 
culture fi:'om about the first of December to the latter part of March, or the be- 
ginning of April. The seeds of knowledge may, however, be sown in winter, 
and the horticulturist may cultivate his mind when his soil is bound in frozen 
fetters. 

Provide a sufficient quantity of bean-poles, and pea-rods, which you may pre- 
serv^e in a corner of your wood-house, or other place suitable for your purpose. 
Many people, who neglect to procure these implements in season, are induced, 
by the hurry of business, to permit their peas and beans to trail on the ground, 
in which situation they will not produce, especially the tall growing sorts, one 
third part so many as if they were properly supported by poles and rods. The 
length of your pea-rods should be m proportion to the sorts of peas for which 
you intend them, 229. The same kinds of rods, which the tall-growing' peas re- 
quire, will answer for the generality of running kidney beans. The Lima beans 
will need strong poles, firom eight to nine feet high. You may now make prep- 
aration for forcing cucumbers and melons, 84, 202. 



FEBRUARY. 

Manure may be cairied into those places where it is needed, left in a heap, 
but not spread. Wherever and whenever the snow is off the ground, rake to- 

f ether and bum the haulm, or whatever may remain from the last year's crop, 
'ences should be inspected and repaired, and seed rubbed out and cleaned-. 
Straw mats for the hot-beds, pales,rails, lattices, or trellises for espalier trees, should 
be got in readiness, 107. See that your garden tools are in good repair, and 
procure such new ones as may be necessary. It is now time to set about pro- 
curing and preparing materials for, and forming hot-beds, 161. Clean trees 
from moss, and protect them against mice and rabbits by whitewashing witli 
lime, or smearing with some composition which is offensive to those vermin. 
Enter in earnest mto the business of forw'arding various kinds of seedling plants, 
by artificial means, so that they mxay have strong roots, and arrive at some size 
26 



S02 



CALENDARIAL INDEX. 



by the time they would naturally make their first appearance above ground. 
This may well be done by adopting Mr. Armstrong's method, with regard to 
melons^ 202. Attend to your fruit in your fruit-room or cellar^ on shelves or in 
boxeS; and; if necessary^ pick it over^ and cull out w^hatever is defective j wipe 
the remainder diy, and pack it away anew. But if it is put down in some sort 
of grain, dry sand, flax-seed chaff, or, what is probably best of all, pulverized 
plaster of Paris, you will not need to meddle with it. You may now, perhaps, 
begin to force asparagus in hot-beds, 28. Sow under glass cases, for transplanting 
or otherwise, radishes, carrots, small salads, peas, beans, &c. Protect choice 
plants, which may show a disposition to vegetate, by matting, litter, cases of 
wicker, old bark^ and other proper means. 



t MARCH. 

Lettuce may be sowed in the open ground as soon as frost will permit, 191. 
It may be sov. ed between vacant rows, intended for other plants, and pulled out 
for use before the other plants are large enough to be encumbered by it. Early 
■peas cannot be planted too soon after the ground is thawed, 226. jRadishes 
may be sowed as scon as the seeds can be raked in. Sow cabbages, cucum- 
bers, melons, cauliflowers, squashes, &:c. in hot-beds, under glasses, &c., 84, 149, 
202. Dig up vacant ground, applying manure. Dress borders, and clip edg- 
ings of box. Clean^ I'elay, or make new gravel walks. Attend to, and turn 
over compost beds. Dress asparagus beds, or make new ones the latter part 
of this month or the beginning of April, 22. Select from your cellar the test 
cabbages with heads, and set them in some proper place to stand for seed. Set 
the difierent kinds remote from each other, to prevent their mixing at the time 
of blossoming. Likewise, set some of your best cabbage stumps for early salad 
and greens. If the gi'ound is moist, set shallow j if dry, place them about six 
inches deep. Small salading, such as cresses, 80, 81, mustard, 207,208, radish, 
260, &c., when a constant supply is wanted, should be sown once a week or 
fortnight. Celer}', for an early crop, may be sown in this month, though the 
principal sowing had better be deferred till April, 74. Artichokes should be 
sov/ed as early as tiie season will permit, 18^ and horse-radish, 159. 



APRIL,. 

In the Eastern States, generally, and in those parts of the Middle States where 
ine ground is naturally somewhat moist and heavy, this is the month for sowing 
ihe principal garden crcps. Sow^ the hardy kinds as soil, site and season will 
permit, that the plants may be firmly established before they are overtaken by 
the heat and drought of summer. But a stifl:' and moist soil should never, on 
aii}^ account, be dug, ploughed or harrowed when it is so wet as to be clammy 
and adhesive. On the other hand, a light, sandy soil will be meliorated by be- 
ing hoed, or olhei'wise wTought on while moist. 

" Earth of a consistence that will hold water longest icithout becoming Imrd 
luhen dnj, is that of all others tlie best adapted for raising" the generality of 
plants in the greatest perfection. The great art of improving sandy and clay 
!^:oIls is to give to the former such dressings of clay, cow-dung, and other kinds 
of manure, as will have a tendency to bind and make it more compact, and, 
consequently, more retentive of moisture 3 and, to the latter, coats of sandy 
earfl), pond mud, horse dung," &c. — M'MaJiGn. 

"^ Sow' artichokes, IC, asparagus, 22, horse, or garden beans, 33, kidney beans, 
36, beets, 40, the last of this month, or the' first of next, borecole, 51, Brussels 
t.prouts, 55; sov/ cabbage seed, 60, set out cabbage plants, 61, sow cardoons, 67, 
can-ots! G8, cauliflowers, 72, celery, 74, coleworts, 79, succession-crops of cresses, 
80, 81, cucumbers in hollowed tuiniips placed in a hot-bed, 87, or in pots un^ 
der haiid-glasses, &c. ; propagate fmit-trees by cuttings, 95. You may set out a 
fev/ dandelion plants in your garden, 97, and let us know how you succeed in 
attenipt:)!g to dorr.esticafe them. Look out for, and destroy insects, 169 3 sow a 
kittle eariy summer endive, 105, fennel, 108 5 propagate garlic, 136, leeks, 190, 



CALENDARIAL INDEX. 



303 



lettuce, 191, maijoram, 197, onions, 213, parsley, 222, parsnep, 224, successive 
<rops of different sorts of peas, 226, potatoes, 248, radish, 2b0, sage, 265, sal- 
si^, 266, savory, 266, sea-kale, 267, skirret, 281. 



MAY. 

You may now sow most or all the articles mentioned in the Calendar for the 
last month, either as first or succession-crops. Plant your cucumbers, 82, and 
melons, 198, for a general crop in the open ground about the 20th j also, squash- 
es, pumpkins, and gourds ; likewise, Indian com for an early garden crop, 
164. Plant your bush-beans and pole-beans, for your principal crop, at any 
lime when most convenient during the month, 36. It is recommended to set 
the poles, and then plant the beans round the poles. Weed and thin your ad- 
vancing crops of radishes, 261. Transplant radishes for seed, 262. Sow suc- 
cession-crops of spinach, 282. Carrot-j may be sown in the Eastern States in 
the forepart of the month, 68. Weed and thin beets, carrots, parsneps, onions, 
early turnips. Sow m,ore turnips of the early kinds for crojjs in succession. 
Such sowing is best performed in the first week of the month, in order that the 
roots may have time to grow to a good size before they are overtaken by sum- 
mer heat and drought. Early cauliflower plants, as they advance in gTowth, 
should have earth drawn up about their stems, and be watered in dry weather. 
You will do well to sow peas for succession-crops, at least twice this month, 226. 
You may set out or transplant early lettuce. Sow as man}' of,the sorts of small 
salading as you may need for market or family consumption. Now is, per- 
haps, as proper a time as any in the year for pruning fruit-trees, 257. The 
season for pruning is immediately before, or commensurate with, the rising of 
the sap. Let your ducks have constant employment as vermin pickers, 102. 
Attack insects by sprinkling over them, by means of a syringe, watering-pot, 
or garden engine, simple water, soap-suds, decoctions of tobacco, of elder^ 
&c. &c. 169. 

JUNE. 

Melons and cucumbers, which have hitherto been protected by glasses or pa- 
per frames, may now be exposed to the open air. If the season be at all dry, 
your vegetables, particularly your cucumbers, will need water, [See Intro- 
auction.] Keep your crops clean, by hand-weeding and hoeing; as directed 
page 158. About the last of the month, you may sow crops of melons and cu- 
cumbers for pickling. Thin forward melon plants, leaving only two or three in 
a hill, 201. Attend to your cabbage and cauliflower plants, as well as your 
beans, &c. and see that they are not destroyed b}' the cut worm. If you 
perceive any plants injured, open the earth at the foot of the plant, and you 
■will never fail to find the worm at the root, within four inches. Kill him, and 
you will save not only the other plants of your garden, but probably many thou- 
sands in fixture years." Hoe and bush your late peas 3 plant more potatoes, 
succession-crops of kidney beans, 36, peas, 226, small salads and lettuce every 
week or ten days. " Thin out and earth up all your plants 5 remember that 
frequent hoeing is both rain and manure to your vegetables in dry weather." 
Celery plants may now be planted out in trenches, 74. When the plants have 
grown to the height of eight or ten inches, draw earth about them, breaking it 
fine. This should be done in dry weather, being careful not to bury the heart. 
Plant out cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, &c. in moist or cloudy weatlier, 
not when the ground is wet and heavy, 61. Cut and dry such "herbs as have 
come to maturity, for winter use. You may as well dry and pulverize some 
kinds, as directed p. 205. Look over your grafted trees, and you may ascer- 
tain whether the scion has imited with the stock. Take off the clay, and loosen 
the bandages of such grafts as have succeeded, and tie v/eak grafts and dan- 
ding iboots fi:-om budded stocks to neat stakes. Rub off all superfluous, irregu- 
lar, or ill placed shoots or suckers. Where 3^our fruit-trees appear to be over- 
loaded with fruit, pick off a part, and carefully gather all that which has fallen 
and give to your swine, in order to destroy the curculio, 176. 



304 



CALENDARIAL INDEX. 



JULY. 

Clean and prepare your ground where your early crops of peas, spinage, 
cauHflowerS; and cabbages grow, and all other vacant spots, to cultivate there- 
on such plants as are proper to supply your table, in autumn and winter, with 
later-grown productions. You ma;^ continue to sow crops of small salading 
every eight or ten days, as directed in former months 3 but they should now be 
sown on shady borders, or else be shaded by mats, occasionally, from the mid- 
day sun, and frequently watered, both before and after the plants appear above 

ground. You may now plant out your celery plants in trenches, 74, unless you 
ave already performed that operation, as directed last month. About the mid- 
dle of July, and from that time to the end of the first week in August, you may 
sow turnips, 292. Thin and transplant such lettuces as were sown last month, 
and sow more lettuce-seed in the beginning, middle, and last week of this 
month, in order to have a constant supply for the table, 191. Sow likewise 
radishes, 261, and in the last week of this month a good crop of spinach may be 
sown for autumn use 3 it will not then be so liable to run to seed as in the pre- 
ceding months. It is a good practice to sow early kinds of cabbages, 60, about 
this time, for a supply of young- greens during autumn. Collect all kinds of 
seeds as they come to maturity, cutting off or pulling up the stems with the 
seeds attached, as they ripen. Spread them in some airy place under cover, 
turning them now and then, that tne seeds may dry and harden gradually, and 
be careful not to lay them so thick as to hazard their heating and fermenting. 
When they are sufficiently dry, beat out and clean the seeds, and deposit them 
in bags or boxes till wanted. Give water to such plants as require it, but let 
this be always done in the evening, that it may be of use to the vegetables be- 
fore the sun shall cause it to evaporate. 

You may now inoculate or bud your fruit-trees, 165, and, where it can be 
done without inconvenience, it will be well to turn swine into your orchard to 
eat the fallen and decayed fruit, and thus destroy the insects which it contains. 
If, however, this cannot well be done, or you have not swine in sufficient num- 
bers to devour all your fallen fruit, it will be well to gather and carry it from the 
ground before the insects, which inhabit it, make their way into the earth, anoi 
make you destructive visitations another season. 



AUGUST. 

Keep all your crops clear from weeds, using the hoe where safe and conve- 
nient 3 otherwise make claw-hoes of your hands, and weed-extracting nippers of 
your thumb and fore-fingers. Pull up the haulm of peas, beans, &c., and re- 
move it to your compost bed 5 bury it between rows of plants, or throw it, to- 
gether with all weeds, &c. to your swine, that your premises may have a neat 
appearance. Cut such herbs as are now in flower, to distil, or to dry for win- 
ter use, being careful to do it when they are dry, and spread them in a dry, 
shady place 3 for, if they are dried in the sun, they will shrink very much, turn 
black, and prove of little value. Your dung-hilfs and compost-heaps should, 
during the summer montns, be kept free from weeds 3 for if the seeds are per- 
mitted to ripen and fall, the dung, when carried into the garden, will dissemi- 
nate weeds innumerable. Attend to plants set out for seed, and put stakes 
to such as need support. This month, as well as the latter part of July, is the 
proper season for inoculating or budding, 165. P»I'Mahon says, ^'Cherries, 

{num.s, or any other fruit-trees, may be budded in August, if the bark parts free- 
y from the stock. Pears ought to be inoculated the early part of the month, or 
while the sap flows freely 3 but the peach, nectarine, almond, and apple, will 
succeed any time between the first of August and twentieth of September, 
provided tlie stocks are young and vigorous." 

Preserve peach, plum, cherry, and apricot stones, &c. to sow for raising 
stocks to bud and graft on. These may either be sown immediately, or kept in 
common garden earth or moist sand. But it will be necessary to sow them 
before the stones open, and the radicles begin to shoot 3 otherwise many of them 
will be broken or torn in the process of sowing. Every day they are kept ou 



CALENDARIAL INDEX. 



305 



of ground is an injury to them 5 and if they remain in a dry state till spring-, 
very few will vegetate till a year after^, and the greater number not at ail. 
Continue to collect and preserve seeds as directed last month. Sow onions to 
stand over winter, 218 ; likewise, cauliflowers, 72. 



SEPTEMBERc 

Hoe and thin your growing crops of spinach, 283. In the first week of this 
month, sow a ftill crop of the prickly-seeded kind for winter and spring use, 283. 
And, at the same time, you should sow a good supply of the early short-top, 
white and red turnip-rooted and salmon radishes, 260. Earth up celery as it 
advances in growth, but be careful to avoid covering me hearts of the plants. 
'I'his work should be done in a dry day. See that you do not bruise or injure the 
stalks 5 for if they are crushed or wounded, they will be subject to rot, 75. 
Gather ail kinds of seeds as they ripen, which may be necessary for the ensu- 
ing- season. Towards the latter end of the month, you may safely transplant 
air kinds of hardy perennial, aromatic, and medicinal herbs, which will thus 
become well rooted before winter. This work should, if possible, be done in 
moist weather. Pull and preserve your ripe onions, 219, and sow more to 
stand over winter, 218. Protect your grapes and other fruit against vvasps. 
This may be done by hanging up phials of honied or sugared water near the 
fruit you wish to defend from their attacks, in which many of the tiny depre- 
dators will be caught and destroyed. Thoroughly clean from weeds all the 
seed-beds and young plantations of trees, shrubs, &c. Gather cucumbers and 
mangoes for pickling before they spot. Sow cauliflowers about the 2Cth, 72. 



OCTOBER. 

The young cabbage plants, produced from seeds sown last month, and in- 
tended for early summer cabbages, should be transplanted into the beds in 
which they are to remain during winter, 60. 

Prepare a bed for them, the width of your garden frame, in a warm, v*'el]- 
sheltered place, where the sun has the greatest power; yet be careful never to 
admit the direct sunshine on the plants, when in a frozen state. "When you 
have no glasses, the plants may be protected during winter by boards or mats, 
giving them air in mild weather. Cauliflowers sown in August or September 
should be raised carefully, and protected, during the cold season, in gardei; 
frames, with boards, mats, &c., or perhaps some may surv^ive if set in ope]i 
borders, 72, or they may be set in pots, 73. Weed and thin 3-Gur late crops of 
spinach, leaving the best plants at the distance of three, four, or five inches 
asunder, 283. Early in the month, hoe and earth up the late-planted crops of 
cabbages, broccoli, and borecole, cauliflowers and other plants of the brassica 
genus. Towards the end of the month, if the stalks of asparagus turn vellow, 
cut them close to the earth 3 clear the beds and alleys from v/eeds, and carry 
them with the stalks off the ground. It will then not be amiss to cover the 
beds and alleys with old litter, well trodden down, to be removed in the spring 
Or you may apply manure now, instead of in spring, as directed page 25. Cut 
down all decayed flower stems, and shoots of the various kinds of aromatic, 
pot and medicinal herbs, close to the plants ; clear the beds from weeds and 
litter, and carry the whole off the ground. Onions may now be planted out 
to raise seed, instead of setting them in the spring, as "directed p. 219. The, 
seeds of dill, skirret, rhubarb, sea-kale, may now be sov/nj for, if kept out of 
ground till spring, many of them will not vegetate till a year after 3 but when 
sown in October or November, if the seeds are fresh and perfect, they will vege- 
tate in the April following. Begin to take up and secure potatoes, 255, beets, 
49, carrots, parsneps, turnips, Jerusalem artichoke, &c., 50. Give a general 
hoeing and weeding to all your crops, and carry the weeds out of the gar- 
den. Such spaces of ground as are now vacant should be dunged, dug, or 
trenched, and thus have the advantage of a winter fallow, and that exposure 
to frost, which will reduce it to fine tilth, and destroy worms, the larvae of 
insect.s, &c. The old beds of strawberries should, some ^ime in this month, bo 
26 * 



306 



CALENDARIAL INDEX. 



cleaned from weeds, and the vines or runners taken off close to the plants. 
Then, if there be room, loosen the earth to a moderate depth between tthe 
plants, taking care not to disturb the roots. And if the plants are in beds with 
alleys between, line out the alleys, and let them be dug a moderate depth, 
breaking the earth very fine, and spreading a sufficiency of it over the beds, 
between and round the beds, taking care not to bmy their tops. A slight top 
dressing of compost, such as described p. 286, may now be applied. It may now 
be time to gather and preserv^e apples and pears, 13, though it is best to let them 
remain on the trees as long as they are safe from frost, 15. If you are no t ap- 
prehensive of the depredations of mice, rats, squirrels, &c. you may sow tfie 
stones of plums, peaches, nectarines, apricots, &c. 5 or you may, ii 3 think it 
more prudent, preserve them in sand till March or April. 



NOVEMBER. 

Gather from your garden, before the hard frosts commence, all those fruits 
of your labours, which you wish to preserve through the winter, not forget- 
ting winter squashes. Take up and preserve cabbages, as directed p. 65. Pre- 
serve your celery, 75. You may gather a part in dry weather, and pack it in 
boxes in dry sand, and place the boxes in a warm cellar, leaving the tops and 
leaves open to the air. Those cabbage and cauliflower plants, v/hich you mean 
shall stand through tlie winter in frames, should, during the continuance of 
mild weather be allowed every advantage of free air, to inure them, by do- 
nees, to bear cold. Take the glasses off entirely, in the warm part of the 
day, but place them on again at night, and in wet or cold weather. If your 
beets, turnips, parsneps, &c. are not secured, take them up, and preserve 
them, as directed last month. You may now sow the seeds of rhubarb, sea- 
kale, skirrets, parsneps, and m.any other kinds, which are somewhat slow in 
vegetating, and they will come forward early, and gi'ow vigorously in the 
sprin*". In the beginning of this month, you may manure and trench the ground 
which is intended for early crops, and, if it be of a stiff, heavy nature, lay it up 
in ridges, to receive the benefit of the winter frosts. You may now sow early 
peas, to come up in the spring, if you can presei^ve them against mice, 227. 
This is, perhaps, as eligible a period as any for the planting of apple-trees, 
and other fruit-trees, 17, 220, or sowing seeds in a nursery, 208, 210. Lay 
light litter of some kind a good thickness over the roots of the more tender 
and choice kinds of trees and shrubs, to protect them from frost. 



DECEMBEH. 

The severity of the weather in this month generally allows but little to be 
done in the Middle and Northern States. Should the season permit, you may 
perform any of the operations directed for last month, w^hich remain unfinished. 
If the weather continues open, carry out and spread manure, and trench the 
ground, as directed for the last month. Provide from the woods, &c. pea- 
sticks and bean-poles, of suitable lengths and sizes, as directed in Januar3% 
Collect all your old sticks and poles, v/hich are still fit for use, and place them 
together with your new ones under cover, to prevent their rotting. Be careflil 
to shut the frost out of the apartments in which you have stored your fruit for 
winter and spring use. Examine the fruit which you have on shelves in cellars, 
-Qnce every ten days, and take away any that you find tainted. Repair all 
decayed trellises, espaliers, &:c. Procure stakes and other materials which 
may be wanted in a more busy season. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



13 

A-pple-Tree ... 17 

Apricot .... 18 

Artichoke ... 18 

Aspara^ ... 22 

Balm ..... ^8 

Barley .... 29 

Bean— Viciaf aba . 33 

Bean, Kidney, . . 36 

Beet 40 

Bene Plant ... 51 

Borecole .... 51 

Borer 52 

Broccoli .... 52 

Brussels Sprouts . 55 

Buckthorn ... 56 

Cabbage .... 59 

Canker-Wonn , . 67 

Caraway ... 67 

Cardoon .... 67 

Carrot .... 68 

Caterpillar ... 72 

Cauliflower ... 72 

Celery .... 74 

Chamomile ... 76 

Cherry-Tree . . 77 

Chervil .... 79 

Chive 79 

Colewort .... 79 

Coriander ... 79 

Cress, Water, . . 80 

Cress, Garden, . . 81 

Cucumber ... 82 

Curculio .... 92 

Currant .... 92 

Cuttings .... 95 

Dandelion ... 97 

Dibble .... 98 

Dill 98 

Drains .... 99 

Duck 102 

Effff Plant . . . 103 

Elder 103 

Elecampane . . 104 

Endive .... 105 

Espaliers .... 107 



Fennel ... 108 
Flowers, Ornamental, 109 
Fruits r" 



Garlick .... 136 

Gooseberry . , , 137 

Gourd .... 142 

Grafting" .... 145 

Green-House . . 151 



Hawthorn ... 153 
Heading dovioi Fruit- 

Trees .... 156 

Hedges .... 156 

Hoemg .... 158 

Horse-Radish . . 159 

Hot-Bed .... 161 

Hot-House ... 163 

Hyssop . . . . 163 



Inarching ... 164 
Indian Corn . . . 164 
Inoculation, or Bud- 
ding .... 165 
Insects .... 169 



Jerusalem Artichoke 182 



Landscapes and Pic- 




turesque Gardens 


184 


Lavender . . . 


187 


Layers .... 


188 


Leaves .... 


188 




190 


Lettuce .... 


191 


Locust-Tree . . 


193 


Love-Apple . . . 


196 


Madder .... 


196 


Mangel Wurtzel . 


197 


Marjoram . . . 


197 


Melon .... 


198 


Mint 


204 


MulbeiTy . . , 


205 


Mushroom . . . 


205 


Mustard .... 


207 







Nursery 


. SOS 


Oak 


. 212 










Orphard 


220 


Parsley . . 


. . 222 


Parsnep . . 


. . 224 


Pea ... 




Peach-Tree . 


. . 232 


Pear-Tree . 


. . 241 


Pepper, Red, 


. . 246 


Plum-Tree . 


. . 246 


Potato . . 


. . 248 


Prunin;^ . . 


. . 257 


Pumpkin . . 


. . 258 


Quince . . 


. . 259 


Radish 


. . 260 


Rhubarb . . 


. . 262 


Roller . . 


. . 264 






Rosemary . 


. . 264 







Sage . . 
Salsify . 
Savory 
Sea-Kale 
Silk . . 
Skirret . 
Spinach . 
Squash 
Strawberry 

Tansy . 
Tarragon 
Teasel . 
Thyme . 
Tomato . 
Turnip 

Vine 



266 
266 
266 
267 
268 
281 



285 
28^ 



290 
291 
291 

294 



SEED ESTABLISHMENT 



The proprietor of this work takes the liberty to inform his friends 
and the public, that he has established a Warehouse for every kinc^ 
of SeedSj suitable for cultivation in the United States, the British 
Provinces, or the West India Islands ; comprising an extensive varie- 
ty of ^rass seeds, the most common as well as the rarer sor.L ; seeds 
of native American forest trees, shrubs, and flowers ; kitchen garden 
vegetables ; medicinal, pot, and aromatic herbs ; fruits, esculent roots, 
ornamental flowers, &c. ; all of which are disposed of at wholesale and 
retail, at fkir prices. 

The greatest care has been taken at this Establishment to have such 
seeds only as can have the utmost reliance placed on their purit} and 
freshness. They are not collected promiscuousb'^, but are raised ex- 
pressly for the proprietor by gentlemen of sldll and respansible char- 
acter. Some few varieties of seed, Vv^hich cannot be raised to advan- 
tege in this country, are from the first Establishments in Europe, on 
whose veracity and faithfulness full confidence can be placed. 

Connected with the Seed Trade, we have a large assortment of the 
most approved Books on Agriculture, Horticulture, Gardening and 
Botany ; and can supply Agricultural Libraries and others with books, 
not usually found elsewhere, on favourable terms. 

The smallest order from the country for seeds, plants, books, &c., 
will meet prompt attention. Orders for s(?eds, &c, should be address- 
ed to " G. C. Barrett^ Proprietor of the JVeio England Farmer Seed 
StorCj JVo. 52, North Market Street^ Boston^ 

The following comprises a list of the principal seeds : 

KITCHEN GARDEN YEGETABLiES. 



ARTICHOKE. 
Green globe 

ASPARAGUS. 

Devonshire 

Gravesend 

Large white Read- 
ing 

BEANS. 
Early mazagan 
Broad Windsor 
Sword long pod 
Green nonpareil 

Dwarf Beans. 

Early yellow cran- 
berry* 

Early Mohawk* 

Early yellow 6 weeks 

Early dun-coloured* 

Early China* 

Large white kid- 
ney* 

Canadian 

White cranberry* 

Red cranberry* 

Marrow* 

Rob Roy 

Bonavisfa 



PoZc, or itinning 

Beans. 
Large white Lirna 
Saba, white and 

speckled 
Scarlet runners 
Dutch case-knife 
Red cranberry* 
White cranberry* 
Yard long, or aspar- 
agus* 

BEET. 
Early blood turnip- 

rcoted 
Early white scarcity 
Long blood'Ted 
Orange turnt;>-rootcd 
Mangel w^urtial 
Sir John Sindair's 
Green, (for stews or 

soups) 
French sugar, or am- 
ber beet 

BORECOLE. 

BRUSSELS 
SPROUTS. 



BROCCOLL 
Early white 
Early purple 
Large cape 

CABBAGE. 
Early Salisbury 

dwarf 
Early York 
Early Dutch 
Early sugar-loaf 
Early London Bat- 

tersea 
Large Bergen, or 

great American 
Russian 
Early emperor 
Early Wellington 
Large late drumhead 
Late imperial 
Late sugar-loaf 
Large green glazed 
Tree, or 1000 head- 
ed 

Large Scotch, (f&r 
cattle) 

Green globe Savoy 

Red Dutch, (for pick- 
ling) 

Large cape Savoy 



Yellow Savoy 
Turnip-rooted, ©r 

Arabian, (above 

ground) 
Turnip-rooted, (Je- 

low ground) 
Chou de Milan 

CARDOON. 

CARROTS. 

Early horn 
Long orange 
Altringham, (a supe- 
rior sort) 
Blood-red 
Lemon 

Krcamer, (for table) 

CAULIFLOWER. 

Early 
Late 

CELERY. 

White solid 
Rose-coloured solid 
Italian 

Celeriac, or turnip 
rooted 

aiERVIL 



* Best string leans 



Barrett's Catalogue of Seeds, 



CHIVES, or CIVES. 

COLEWORT. or 
COLLARDS. 

CORN SALAD, or 
VETTICOST. 

CRESS. 
Curled or pepper- 
grass 

Broad-leaved garden 
Water 

CUCUMBER. 

Early frame 
Green cluster 
Long prickly 
Short prickly 
Long green Turkey 
Long white Turkey 
Long white-spined 
Small girkin or West 
India, (pickling) 

ENDIVE, or SUC- 
CORY. 
Green curled 
White curled 
Broad-leaved Bata- 
vian, (/or winter) 

GARDEN BUR- 
NET. 

GARLICK SETS. 

INDIAN CORN. 

Early golden Si- 
oux, (ripens in 10 
weeks) 

Early Canadian 

Early Jefferson 

Sweet, or sugar, 
for boiling ears) 

Large southern 
horse-tooth 

Large flour white 

Nonpareil, or pearl, 
(curious) 

Mottled, (curious) 

KALE. 
Green curly Scotch 
Purple curled 
Sea 

LEEK. 
Large Scotch 
London 

LETTUCE. 
Early curled Silesia 
Large green-head, or 
cabbage 



Royal Cape, [superi- 
or quality) 
India (^very fine) 
Imperial 
Hardy green 
Brown Dutch 
Grand admiral 
Tennis-ball, or rose 
Drumhead 
Magnum bonum cos 
Brighton cos, {fine) 
Ice cos 

White cos, or loaf 
Green cos 

MELON. 

Green citron 

Murray's pine- 
apple 

Persian 

Nutmeg 

Minorca 

Cassabar 

Large cantaleupe 

Pomegranate, or 
musk-scented 

Carolina water 

Long Island do. 

Apple-seeded do. 

(ji few extra sorts 
from Europe) 

MELONGENA, or 
EGG-PLANT. 

Purple, (best for cvr 
Unary purposes) 

White f (ornamental) 

MUSTARD. 
White, or English 
Brown 

NASTURTIUM. 

OKRA. 

ONION. 
White Portugal 
Yellow 

Genuine Madeira 
Strasburgh 
Large red 

PARSLEY. 

Curled, or double 

Dwarf curled, (very 
much curled) 

Hamburg, or large- 
rooted 

Siberian, (hardy) 

PARSNEP. 
Large Dutch, or 

swelling 
Silver-skin 



PEAS. 

Early Washington, 
or true May pea, 
(extra early and 
fine, grows to the 
height of ^\ feet) 

Early double-blos- 
somed, frame, (ex- 
tra early and fine, 
3 feet) 

Early frame, (2^ 
feet) 

Early golden hot- 
spur, (3 feet) 

Early Charlton, (3 
feet) 

Dwari blue imperial, 
(^feetj superior) 

New nonpareil, (4 
feet) 

D wart blue Prussian, 

m/eet) ^ 
Dwarf Spanish, or 

fan, (1 foot) 
Dwarf marrowfat, 

(3hfeet) 
Dwarf sugar, (eata- 
ble pods, 3 feet) 
Matchless, or true 
tall marrowfat, (6 
feet) [rows 
Knight's tall mar- 
Tall crooked-podded 
sugar, (eatable 
pods) 
Ladies' finger mar- 
rowfat, (very fine) 

PEPPER. 
Long, or Cayenne 
Tomato-shaped, or 

squash 
Bell 
Cherry 

PUMPKIN, 
Finest family 
Connecticut field 
Mammoth j (these 
have grown to 
226 lbs. weight) 
Large cheese 

RADISH. 

Early frame 

Early short-top scar- 
let (superior) 

Long salmon 

Purple short-top 

Long white summer, 
or Naples 

Cherry, or scarlet 
turnip-rooted 

Violet-coloured tur- 
nip-rooted 



White turnip-rooted 
Black fall, or Span- 
ish 

RHUBARB. 

SALSIFY, or VEG- 
ETABLE OYS- 
TER. 

SKIRRBT. 

SCORZONERA. 

SPINACH, or SPIN- 
AGE. 
Round-leaved, or 

summer 
Prickly, or fall 
Holland, or Lamb's 

quarter 
English patienca 

dock, (for early 

greens) 
New Zeal and, (a val' 

uable new sort) 

SaUASH. 
Early bush sununer 
Long crook-neck, or 
bell (white and yel- 
low) 

Vegetable marrow 
Commodore Porter's 

Valparaiso 
Canada crook neck 
Acorn 

TOMATO, or 
LOVE APPLE. 

TURNIP. 

T%ose marked ftere 
best for family use. 

Early white Dutch/ 

Early garde n-stono/ 

Yellow stone / 

White flat, or 
globe / 

Green round 

Red round / 

Swan's egg/ 

Large English Nor- 
folk 

Long tankard, or 

Hanover/ 
Long yellow 

French/ 
Yellow Dutch/ 
Yellow Maltese/ 
Yellow Aberdeen 
Yellow Swedish, 

Russia, Lapland^ 

or ruta baga 



ESCULENT ROOTS AND P1.ANTS, 



Asparagus 
Carolina sweet pota- 
to slipa 
/'hives 

^rly potatoes, (veny 
Sa£ sorted 



English white 
ney potatoes 
Garlic 
Hop 

Horse-radish 



kid- 



Lemon thyme 
Potato onion 
Red onion sets 
Sea-kale 
Shallots 



Jerusalem ortiicbol^e I Tarraxroo, or Astra- 



gon, (for infusing 

into vinegar) 
Top or tree onion 
Undulated rhubarJ' 

(for tarts) 
White oniou 



Barretfs Catalogue of Seeds. 



FIEIiD AND GRASS SEEDS. 



Barley 
Blue grass 
Broom com 
Brown mustard 
Buckwheat 
Canary 
Cotton 

Dier's madder 
English rye grass 
English rape, or 

cole seed 
English kidney pota- 
toes 

Field burnet, (for 

sheep) 
Flax 

Fuller's teasel 



Field-peas, white 

and green 
Havanna tobacco 
Hemp 

Indian corn, (0/ 
sorts) 

Large Scotch cab- 
bage 

Large white Norfolk 

turnip 
Lentiles 

Lucerne, or French 

clover 
Mangel wurtzel 
Millet 

Orchard grass 
Potato oats 



Red -top 

Red clover 

Ruta baga, Swedish, 

or Lapland tuxuip 
Sweet-scented vernal 

grass 
Spring wheat 
Spring rye 
Spring vetches 
Sweet potato slips 
Tall meadow oats 



Timothy or herd's 

grass 
Trefoil or yellow 

clover 
Virginia tobacco 



^\Tiito Dutch clover 
White American 

clover 
Winter rye 
Wila succory, or 

wild endive 
Woad 

White field beans 
Weld, or Dier's 
weed 

White, or English 

mustard 
Winter vetches 
Yellow Aberdeen 

turnip 
Yellow locust 



TREE SEEDS, 



We keep a large assortment of fruit and forest tree seeds — particularly those of 
native American forest trees suitable for sending to Europe — the names of which it 
is impracticable to insert here. 



Anise 
Caraway 
Common sage 
Dwarf, or bush ba- 
^ fil, {very fragrant) 



^alm 



POT AND SWEET HERBS. 

Pot marigold j^ummer savory 

Red sage Sweet marjoram 

Rosemary Thyme 
Sweet basil Winter savory 



Fenugreek 
Garlic 
Lavender 
Officinal borage 
Officinal bugloss 

MEDICINAIi HERBS, 



Bcneset 

Bugle weed 

Burdock 

Chamomile 

Coriander 

Catnep 

Comfrey 

1X11 

Dier's woad 
Elecampane 



Finochio _ 
Henbane 
Horehound 
Horsemiut 
Hyssop 
Jerusalem oak 
Lovage, or llvoce 
Marsh mallows 
Meadow saffron 
Moldavian, or lemon 

balm 
Motherwort 



Officinal cumin 
Palma Christi, or 

castor-oil bean 
Pennyroyal 
Peppermint 
Purple fox-glove 
Rue 
Saffron 
Scull-cap 
Scurvy- grass 
Spearmint 
Spikenard 



Sweet fennel 
Tansy 

Turkey rhubarb 
Undulated rhubarb. 

(for tarts) 
Virginian speedwell 
Wild succory, or 

wild endive 
White officinal pop- 

py 

Wormwood 



ANNUAIi, BIENNI AIi3 AND PERENNI Ali FL,0 WER- 

SEEDS. 

* Of these we have more than three hundred varieties, the names of which it is, of 
course, impracticable to insert here. 

BUtBOUS FL.OWER-ROOTS5 &c. 

Constantly on hand, in the season of them, the largest variety of buJbouR flower- 
roots, imported annually from Holland, comprising the different varieties of 



Cyclamens, (of sorts) 
Crocus, (of sorts) 
Snow-drops, (doubla 

and single) 
Star of Bethlehem^ 
(of sorts) 



Double and single] Ranunculus, (sorts) Fritillaries, (sorts) 

hyacinths, named Anemones, (of sorts) Gladiolus, (^f sorts) 
Polyanthos Narcis- Iris, (of sorts) Lilies, (ofsOi-ts) 

BUS, named Tube roses, (double Crown imperials, (of 

Double and single and single) sorts) 

Jonquilles Amhiy a'is, (of sorts) Narcissus, (0/ sar£s) 

Tulips, (in great va- Martagons, (qf sorts) Colchicums, (sorts) 
. riety) 

• We import from Scotland, every spring, an extensive collection of Scotch gooseber- 
ry bushes, with names ; also strawberry plants, thorn quicks, asparagus roots 3 and 
keep on hand every variety of seed or roots, that is wanted on a farm or garden. 

As the variety and quantity of seeds kept at this Establishment are by far greater 
ihan at any other piace in New England, orders for the British Provinces, the West 
India market, or the Southern States, can always be executed with promptness, at sat- 
tfactory prices. Dealers in seeds, and country traders, supplied, at wholesale or 
©tail, on the best terms. The seeds are packed in boxes for the country trade, in 
jmall packages, neatly s'jaled, wi^Ji the orices marked, and directions printed fm 
packai'e. for their culiur** 



NEW ENGLAND FARMER 



This is a weekly paper, devoted to agriculture, gardening, and rural econo^ 
my. It is conducted by Mr. Fessenden, the author of the New American 
Gardener^ who is assisted by various agricultural writers, and by the observa- 
tions of the best practical farmers and gardeners in New England. It is printed 
in a quarto form, paged, making a volume of 416 pages annually, to which a 
tit;- , age and index are furnished gratis. It is recommended to all farmers, 
v/ho wish for a weekly journal which contains a variety of articles on agriculf 
ture, horticulture, the state of the markets, crops, &c. It is published at $S,(K) 
per annum, from which a discount of 50 cents is made, if paid in advance. A 
copy will be sent gratis to any person who may wish to examine it. 

03" This Journal has received the unsolicited recommendation of all the 
principal Agricultural Societies in New England, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick : from which the following is selected : 

"At a meeting of the Worcester County Agricultural Society, held at 
Worcester, it was voted unanimously, as the sense of the Board, that the New 
ENGLi^ND Farmer, an agricultural paper published in Boston, and edited by 
Thomas G. Fessenden, Esq., has been conducted with spirit, intelligence and 
p"ood judgment 5 that its columns are replete with useftil instruction in the 
Dusiness of husbandry, and that its general circulation would tend most bene- 
ficially to the knowledge and practical improvement of the Agricultural inter- 
ests of the country. It is, therefore, recommended to the notice and patronag^e 
of the public, and to the particular encouragement of the members of this 
Society, and of farmers generally, by their subscription for the paper, and by 
communications for publication. LEVI LINCOLN, President. ^ 

Attest, Wm. D. Wheeler, Rec, Sec^ryP 

Similar votes have been passed by the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, 
the Essex Agricultural Society, the Nova Scotia Agricultural Society, and bv 
several others in Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and New Brunswick. 

The following is from the North American Review, 
" The New England Farmer is a weekly paper, printed in a royai 
quarto form, and devoted to agriculture. Nearly three volumes have been 
published. In its pui^poses and general character it resembles the Americas 
Farmer. The New England Farmer, of course, is chiefly confined to the ag- 
riculture of the Eastern States 3 although it contains communications of general 
utility sent from different parts of the Union, and such occasional selections from 
the best agricultural works, as are important in conveying useful knowledge to 
the farmer. Well conducted journals of this sort must nave a most beneficial 
effect on the community. To instruct the farmer in his art, and teach him 
easier methods of tilling his soil, and drawing from it a more abundant product, 
is to diminish the expense of cultivation, and save the same proportion of labour 
to be employed in an additional production. 

" The Editor of the New England Farmer is well known to the public as an 
able writer, and, if we mistake not, this Journal will prove, that his ability has 
been emploj^ed with judgment and success in the walks of agriculture. Amonff 
his contributors are some of our most distinguished citizens and experienced 
agriculturists 5 and his work may undoubtedly be recommended to the farmers 
of New England in particular, as containing a mass of knowledge highly useful 
to them, which could not be obtained from any other single source. Farmers 
in every part of the United States will also find it valuable, as a repository of 
facts on the principles and practices of agriculture in general." 



Bangor, G. W. Brown. 
Castine, M. Chamberlain, Esq. 
Portsmouth, J. W. Fester. 
Salem, J. M. Ivea.- 
JSTeivburyport, E. Stoilnian. 
m?o Bedford, R. Williams. 
Worcester, Wni. Lincoln, Esq. 
BrattlehoTO, J. Fossendeii. 
Providence^ flu^li Brown. 



AGENTS. 

Hartfordi Goodwin & Sons. 
Albany, Buel & Wilson. 
J-^ew York, G. Thorburn & Son, 67 

Liberty Street. 
Philadelphia, D. & C. Landretli, 85 

Chesnut Street. 
Halifax, (JV. S.) P. J. Holland. 
St. John, (Jr. B.) Wm. O. Smith, 
Druggist. 



AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE, 

No. 52 NORTH MARKET STREET, 

OPPOSITE merchants' ROW, 

BOSTON. 

JOSEPH R. NEWEIili, PROPRIETOR. 

The Agricultural Warehouse, which has been established in this city about eight 
years, has become so extensive, and of so much importance to the community, as to 
induce the proprietor to continue and extend it in all its various branches, for the ac- 
commodation of experimental and scientific farmers, by the introduction of new and 
useful implements of husbandry, and to furnish the practical farmer with the best 
tools for his business. 

An establishment of this kind not only serves the above purpose, but is a deposi- 
tory where the inventive artisan may place his articles for sale. 

The proprietor does not hesitate to say, that, among the variety of articles on hand 
at this establishment, many are far superior in their form and construction, and far 
better adapted to the purposes for which they are intended, thaa any others which 
have been in use in this country. 

Among the variety of PLOUGHS on hand are Tice's, which is the most approved 
cast iron plough in use ; 
Howard's wrought and cast iron do. j 
New York Self-Sharpening do. ; 

A new and much approved Side-hill plough, which is so constructed as to shift the 
mould-board with great expedition, in such a manner as to throw the furrow down 
hill each way, and can be used in any common land ; 

Common and Expanding Double Mould-board ploughs and cultivators ; 

Howard's patent Self-governing Ploughs. This plough is so constructed as to regu- 
late the depth and width of each furrow, and govern itself without the assistance of a 
ploughman. 

Pope's Improved Threshing Machine, invented by the late Joseph Pope, Esq., has 
been in successful operation in different parts of the country for several years ; and is 
found, on trial, to be the best operating machine ; to do the work in the most perfect 
and effectual manner ; and the least liable to get out of order of any machine that has 
been in use It will thoroughly thresh twenty bushels of wheat, rye, or barley, in 
one hour ; and of oats, double the quantity ; with a common horse power which is 
attached, and operates the machine with perfect ease j — with a Fanning Machine for 
cleaning the grain. 

Also — Willis's, Eastman's, Safford's, and the common Dutch Straw Cutters j prices 
from $G to $75. 

Jones's, Jaquith's, and Harrison's Corn Shellers ; prices from $12 to $25. 
Gault's, Philadelphia, and common duaker Churns ; from $1,75 to $6. 
Thomas's Winnowing Machine ; $16. 

Flagg's, Gerrish's, and Bailey's Hand Mills for grinding corn and plaster ; price $6 
to $100. 

Corn and Cob Crackers ; Cultivators ; Vegetable Cutters ; Mears's Ox Yoke ; pat- 
ent cast steel Hoes ; Prong Hoes ; Hay and Manure Forks ; Carrot Forks j Shovels 
of various sorts ; Edging and Budding Knives ; Pruning Saws ; Transplanting Spades 
and Shovels ; Pruning Shears ; Chain Halters ; Surveyors' and Cattle Chains ; Tree 
Scrapers ; Pruning Knives and Chisels ; Rules ; Scythes ; Iron Bars ; Hay Knives , 
Lead Water Pipes j Copper Pumps ; Stone Milk Pans ; Stone Churns, Pots, &c., with 
every implement used on a farm or garden ; comprising the largest assortment to ba 
found at any warehouse in the United States. 

JOSEPH R. NEWELL. 



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